1、ACI 213R-03 supersedes ACI 213R-87 (Reapproved 1999) and became effective September 26, 2003. Copyright 2003, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic o
2、r mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors. ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Commentaries are in
3、tended for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and inspecting construction. This document is intended for the use of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of its content and recommendations and who will accept responsibility for the application of the mat
4、erial it contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom. Reference to this document shall not be made in contract documents. If items found in this document are desir
5、ed by the Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents, they shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation by the Architect/Engineer.213R-1 It is the responsibility of the user of this document to establish health and safety practices appropriate to the specific circumstance
6、s involved with its use. ACI does not make any representations with regard to health and safety issues and the use of this document. The user must determine the applicability of all regulatory limitations before applying the document and must comply with all applicable laws and regulations, includin
7、g but not limited to, United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) health and safety standards. Guide for Structural Lightweight-Aggregate Concrete ACI 213R-03 The guide summarizes the present state of technology. It presents and interprets the data on lightweight-aggregate con
8、crete from many laboratory studies, accumulated experience resulting from successful use, and the performance of structural lightweight-aggregate concrete in service. This guide includes a definition of lightweight-aggregate concrete for structural purposes, and discusses, in condensed fashion, the
9、production methods for and inherent properties of structural lightweight aggregates. Other chapters follow on current practices for proportioning, mixing, transporting, and placing; properties of hardened concrete; and the design of structural concrete with reference to ACI 318. Keywords: abrasion r
10、esistance; aggregate; bond; contact zone; durability; fire resistance; internal curing; lightweight aggregate; lightweight concrete; mixture proportion; shear; shrinkage; specified density concrete; strength; thermal conductivity. FOREWORD This guide covers the unique characteristics and performance
11、 of structural lightweight-aggregate concrete. General historical information is provided along with detailed information on lightweight aggregates and proportioning, mixing, and placing of concrete containing these aggregates. The physical properties of the structural lightweight aggregate along wi
12、th design information and applications are also included. Structural lightweight concrete has many and varied applications, including multistory building frames and floors, curtain walls, shell roofs, folded plates, bridges, prestressed or precast elements of all types, marine structures, and others
13、. In many cases, the architectural expression of form combined with functional design can be achieved more readily with structural lightweight concrete than with any other medium. Many architects, engineers, and contractors recognize the inherent economies and advantages offered by this material, as
14、 evidenced by the many impressive lightweight concrete structures found today throughout the world. CONTENTS Chapter 1Introduction, p. 213R-2 1.1Objectives Reported by ACI Committee 213 David J. Akers Ralph D. Gruber Bruce W. Ramme Michael J. Boyle Jiri G. Grygar Steven K. Rowe Theodore W. Bremner E
15、dward S. Kluckowski Shelley R. Sheetz Ronald G. Burg Mervyn J. Kowalsky Peter G. Snow David A. Crocker Michael L. Leming Jeffrey F. Speck Calvin L. Dodl W. Calvin McCall William X. Sypher Per Fidjestol Avi A. Mor Alexander M. Vaysburd Dean M. Golden Dipak T. Parekh Ming-Hong Zhang Special thanks goe
16、s to the following associate members for their contribution to the revision of this document: Kevin Cavanaugh, Shawn P. Gross, Thomas A. Holm, Henry J. Kolbeck, David A. Marshall, Hesham Marzouk, Karl F. Meyer, Jessica S. Moore, Tarun R. Naik, Robert D. Thomas, Victor H. Villarreal, Jody R. Wall, an
17、d Dean J. White, II. John P. Ries Chair G. Michael Robinson Secretary213R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT 1.2Historical background 1.3Terminology 1.4Economy of lightweight concrete Chapter 2Structural lightweight aggregates, p. 213R-5 2.1Internal structure of lightweight aggregates 2.2Production of lightweig
18、ht aggregates 2.3Aggregate properties Chapter 3Proportioning, mixing, and handling, p. 213R-8 3.1Scope 3.2Mixture proportioning criteria 3.3Materials 3.4Proportioning and adjusting mixtures 3.5Mixing and delivery 3.6Placing 3.7Pumping lightweight concrete 3.8Laboratory and field control Chapter 4Phy
19、sical and mechanical properties of structural lightweight-aggregate concrete, p. 213R-12 4.1Scope 4.2Method of presenting data 4.3Compressive strength 4.4Density of lightweight concrete 4.5Specified-density concrete 4.6Modulus of elasticity 4.7Poissons ratio 4.8Creep 4.9Drying shrinkage 4.10Splittin
20、g tensile strength 4.11Modulus of rupture 4.12Bond strength 4.13Ultimate strength factors 4.14Durability 4.15Absorption 4.16Alkali-aggregate reaction 4.17Thermal expansion 4.18Heat flow properties 4.19Fire endurance 4.20Abrasion resistance Chapter 5Design of structural lightweight- aggregate concret
21、e, p. 213R-24 5.1Scope 5.2General considerations 5.3Modulus of elasticity 5.4Tensile strength 5.5Shear and diagonal tension 5.6Development length 5.7Deflection 5.8Columns 5.9Prestressed lightweight concrete 5.10Thermal design considerations 5.11Seismic design 5.12Fatigue 5.13Specifications Chapter 6
22、High-performance lightweight concrete, p. 213R-30 6.1Scope and historical developments 6.2Structural efficiency of lightweight concrete 6.3Applications of high-performance lightweight concrete 6.4Reduced transportation cost 6.5Enhanced hydration due to internal curing Chapter 7References, p. 213R-35
23、 7.1Referenced standards and reports 7.2Cited references 7.3Other references CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION 1.1Objectives The objectives of this guide are to provide information and guidelines for designing and using lightweight concrete. By using such guidelines and construction practices, the structures ca
24、n be designed and performance predicted with the same confidence and reliability as normalweight concrete and other building materials. 1.2Historical background The first known use of lightweight concrete dates back over 2000 years. There are several lightweight concrete structures in the Mediterran
25、ean region, but the three most notable structures were built during the early Roman Empire and include the Port of Cosa, the Pantheon Dome, and the Coliseum. The Port of Cosa, built in about 273 B.C., used lightweight concrete made from natural volcanic materials. These early builders learned that e
26、xpanded aggregates were better suited for marine facilities than the locally available beach sand and gravel. They went 25 mi. (40 km) to the northeast to quarry volcanic aggregates at the Volcine complex for use in the harbor at Cosa (Bremner, Holm, and Stepanova 1994). This harbor is on the west c
27、oast of Italy and consists of a series of four piers ( 13 ft 4 m cubes) extending out into the sea. For two millennia they have withstood the forces of nature with only surface abrasion. They became obsolete only because of siltation of the harbor. The Pantheon, finished in 27 B.C., incorporates con
28、crete varying in density from the bottom to the top of the dome. Roman engineers had sufficient confidence in lightweight concrete to build a dome whose diameter of 142 ft (43.3 m) was not exceeded for almost two millenniums. The structure is in excellent condition and is still being used to this da
29、y for spiritual purposes (Bremner, Holm, and Stepanova 1994). The dome contains intricate recesses formed with wooden formwork to reduce the dead load, and the imprint of the grain of the wood can still be seen. The excellent cast surfaces that are visible to the observer show clearly that these ear
30、ly builders had successfully mastered the art of casting concrete made with lightweight aggregates. Vitruvius took special interest in building construction and commented on what was unusual. The fact that he did not single out lightweight concrete for comment might simply imply that these early bui
31、lders were fully familiar with this material (Morgan 1960).GUIDE FOR STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT-AGGREGATE CONCRETE 213R-3 The Coliseum, built in 75 to 80 A.D., is a gigantic amphi- theater with a seating capacity of 50,000 spectators. The foundations were cast with lightweight concrete using crushed vol
32、canic lava. The walls were made using porous, crushed- brick aggregate. The vaults and spaces between the walls were constructed using porous-tufa cut stone. After the fall of the Roman Empire, lightweight concrete use was limited until the 20th century when a new type of manufactured, expanded shal
33、e, lightweight aggregate became available for commercial use. Stephen J. Hayde, a brick manufacturer and ceramic engineer, invented the rotary kiln process of expanding shale, clay, and slate. When clay bricks are manufactured, it is important to heat the preformed clay slowly so that evolved gases
34、have an opportunity to diffuse out of the clay. If they are heated too rapidly, a “bloater” is formed that does not meet the dimensional uniformity essential for a successfully fired brick. These rejected bricks were recognized by Hayde as an ideal material for making a special concrete. When reduce
35、d to appropriate aggregate size and grading, these bloated bricks could be used to produce a lightweight concrete with mechanical properties similar to regular concrete. After almost a decade of experimentation, in 1918 he patented the process of making these aggregates by heating small particles of
36、 shale, clay, or slate in a rotary kiln. A particle size was discovered that, with limited crushing, produced an aggregate grading suitable for making light- weight concrete (ESCSI 1971). Commercial production of expanded slag began in 1928, and in 1948 the first structural-quality, sintered-shale,
37、lightweight aggregate was produced using shale in eastern Pennsylvania. One of the earliest uses of reinforced lightweight concrete was in the construction of ships and barges around 1918. The U.S. Emergency Fleet Building Corporation found that, for concrete to be effective in ship construction, th
38、e concrete would need a maximum density of about 110 lb/ft 3(1760 kg/m 3 ) and a compressive strength of approximately 4000 psi (28 MPa). Concrete was obtained with a compressive strength of approximately 5000 psi (34 MPa) and a unit weight of 110 lb/ft 3(1760 kg/m 3 ) or less using rotary-kiln- pro
39、duced expanded shale and clay aggregate. Considerable impetus was given to the development of lightweight concrete in the late 1940s when a National Housing Agency survey was conducted on the potential use of lightweight concrete for home construction. This led to an extensive study of concrete made
40、 with lightweight aggregates. Sponsored by the Housing and Home Finance Agency, parallel studies were conducted simultaneously in the laboratories of the National Bureau of Standards (Kluge, Sparks, and Tuma 1949) and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (Price and Cordon 1949) to determine properties of
41、concrete made with a broad range of lightweight aggregate types. These studies and earlier works focused attention on the potential structural use of some lightweight-aggregate concrete and initiated a renewed interest in lightweight members for building frames, bridge decks, and precast products in
42、 the early 1950s. Following the collapse of the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge, the replacement suspension structure design used lightweight concrete in the deck to incorporate additional roadway lanes without the necessity of replacing the original piers. During the 1950s, many multistory structure
43、s were designed from the foundations up, taking advantage of reduced dead weight using lightweight concrete. Examples are the 42-story Prudential Life Building in Chicago, which used lightweight concrete floors, and the 18-story Statler Hilton Hotel in Dallas, designed with a lightweight concrete fr
44、ame and flat plate floors. These structural applications stimulated more-concentrated research into the properties of lightweight concrete. In energy-related floating structures, great efficiencies are achieved when a lightweight material is used. A reduction of 25% in mass in reinforced normalweigh
45、t concrete will result in a 50% reduction in load when submerged. Because of this, the oil and gas industry recognized that lightweight concrete could be used to good advantage in its floating structures as well as structures built in a graving dock and then floated to the production site and bottom
46、-founded. To provide the technical data necessary to construct huge offshore concrete structures, a consortium of oil companies and contractors was formed to evaluate lightweight aggregate candidates suitable for making high-strength lightweight concrete that would meet their design requirements. Th
47、e evaluations started in the early 1980s, with the results made available in 1992. As a result of this research, design information became readily available and has enabled lightweight concrete to be used for new and novel applications where high strength and high durability are desirable (Hoff 1992
48、). 1.3Terminology Aggregate, insulatingNonstructural aggregate meeting the requirements of ASTM C 332. This includes Group I aggregate, Perlite with a bulk density between 7.5 and 12 lb/ft 3(120 and 192 kg/m 3 ), Vermiculite with a bulk density between 5.5 and 10 lb/ft 3(88 and 160 kg/m 3 ), and gro
49、up II aggregate that meets the requirements of ASTM C 330 and ASTM C 331. (See aggregate, structural-lightweight, and aggregate, masonry-lightweight.) Aggregate, lightweightSee aggregate, structural lightweight; aggregate, masonry lightweight; or aggregate, insulating. Aggregate, masonry-lightweight (MLWA)Aggregate meeting the requirements of ASTM C 331 with bulk density less than 70 lb/ft 3(1120 kg/m 3 ) for fine aggregate and less than 55 lb/ft 3(880 kg/m 3 ) for coarse aggregate. This includes aggregates prepared by
