1、 Cells and Temperature 细胞与温度much narrower limits mark the boundaries of effective functioning. Enzyme systems of mammals and birds are most efficient only within a narrow range around 37C;a departure of a few degrees from this value seriously impairs their functioning. Even though cells can survive
2、wider fluctuations the integrated actions of bodily systems are impaired. Other animals have a wider tolerance for changes of bodily temperature. For centuries it has been recognized that mammals and birds differ from other animals in the way they regulate body temperature. Ways of characterizing th
3、e difference have become more accurate and meaningful over time, but popular terminology still reflects the old division into “warm-blooded” and “cold-blooded” species; warm-blooded included mammals and birds whereas all other creatures were considered cold-blooded. As more species were studied, it
4、became evident that this classification was inadequate. A fence lizard or a desert iguanaeach cold-blooded-usually has a body temperature only a degree or two below that of humans and so is not cold. Therefore the next distinction was made between animals that maintain a constant body temperature, c
5、alled home0therms, and those whose body temperature varies with their environments, called poikilotherms. But this classification also proved inadequate, because among mammals there are many that vary their body temperatures during hibernation. Furthermore, many invertebrates that live in the depths
6、 of the ocean never experience change in the depths of the ocean never experience change in the chill of the deep water, and their body temperatures remain constant.细胞只能在一定的温度范围内存活，而进一步保证它们有效工作的温度范围就更小了。哺乳动物和鸟类的酶系统只能在 37左右的很小范围内才能有效工作。与此 相差仅几度的温度都会大大削弱它们的工作效率。尽管温度变化更大时细胞仍能存活，但机体系统的整体运行能力却被削弱了。其它动物对体
7、温的变化有更强的适应 性。几个世纪以来，人们就认识到哺乳动物和鸟类调节体温的方式与其它动物不同。随着时间的推移，人们对这种差异的描述越来越精确和有意义，但是“暖血动物“ 和“冷血动物“这一古老的分类方式至今仍在大众词汇中有所反映。暖血动物包括哺乳动物和鸟类，其它动物统统被视为冷血动物。但是对更多物种进行的研究表明 这种分类显然是不适当的。美洲一种小型蜥蜴和沙漠鬣蜥同属冷血动物，但实际上它们的体温通常只比人类的体温低 12 度，因此并不是真正的冷血。因此又出现 了恒温动物(即保持恒定体温的动物)和变温动物(即体温随外界环境的变化而改变的动物)这一区分方式。但这种分类也不恰当。因为有不少哺乳动物在
8、冬眠期间 会改变体温，而许多生活在深海的无脊椎动物在寒冷的深海水域中体温并不变化，而是恒定的。Sleep 睡眠(2)Sleep is part of a persons daily activity cycle. There are several different stages of sleep, and they too occur in cycles. If you are an average sleeper, your sleep cycle is as follows. When you first drift off into slumber, your eyes will r
9、oll about a bit, you temperature will drop slightly, your muscles will relax, and your breathing will slow and become quite regular. Your brain waves slow and become quite regular. Your brain waves slow down a bit too, with the alpha rhythm of rather fast waves for a few minutes. This is called stag
10、e 1 sleep For the next half hour or so, as you relax more and more, you will drift down through stage 2 and stage 3 sleep. The lower your stage of sleep. slower your brain waves will be. Then about 40 to 60 minutes after you lose consciousness you will have reached the deepest sleep of all. Your bra
11、in will show the large slow waves that are known as the delta rhythm. This is stage 4 sleep. You do not remain at this deep fourth stage all night long, but instead about 80 minutes after you fall into slumber, your brain activity level will increase again slightly. The delta rhythm will disappear,
12、to be replaced by the activity pattern of brain waves. Your eyes will begin to dart around under your closed eyelids as if you were looking at something occurring in front of you. This period of rapid eye movement lasts for some 8 to 15 minutes and is called REM sleep. It is during REM sleep period,
13、 your body will soon relax again, your breathing will grow slow and regular once more. Your breathing will slip gently back from stage 1 to stage 4 sleep-only to rise once again to the surface of near consciousness some 80 minutes later.睡眠是人每天日常活动循环的一部分。人的睡眠分几个阶段，而这些阶段也是循环发生的。如果你是一个正常的睡眠者，你的睡眠循环会这样进
14、行。在你开始昏昏入睡时，你的眼睛会滚动几下，体温略有下降，肌肉放松，呼吸变得缓慢而有节奏。除了开始几分钟比较快的 节奏外，脑电波也稍有减缓。这被称为第一阶段睡眠。在随后约半小时内，你进一步放松，进入第二和第三阶段睡眠。睡眠越深入，脑电波就越缓慢。大约在开始睡眠后的 40到60分钟，你将进入沉睡状态。这时的脑电波表现为巨大的缓波，被称为 节奏。这就是第四阶段睡眠。但你并不是整夜都保持这种沉睡状态。入睡后约 80分钟左右，你的大脑运动水平会再度略有提高。 节奏消失，并被脑电波的运动图形取代。你的眼睛会在 闭着的眼睑下迅速转动，就好象你在看着眼前发生的什么事情。这种迅速的眼球运动持续约 815 分钟
15、，这一阶段睡眠被称之为快速眼动(REM)睡眠。在 REM睡眠阶段，你的肢体会很快再度放松，呼吸也再次放慢并变得有节奏，你会轻松地从第一阶段滑入第四阶段睡眠-直到大约 80分钟后重新接近清醒状态。Folk Cultures 民间文化(4)A folk culture is a small isolated, cohesive, conservative, nearly self-sufficient group that is homogeneous in custom and race with a strong family or clan structure and highly deve
16、loped rituals. Order is maintained through sanctions based in the religion or family and interpersonal relationships are strong. Tradition is paramount, and change comes infrequently and slowly. There is relatively little division of labor into specialized duties. Rather, each person is expected to
17、perform a great variety of tasks, though duties may differ between the sexes. Most goods are handmade and subsistence economy prevails. Individualism is weakly developed in folk cultures as are social classes. Unaltered folk cultures no longer exist in industrialized countries such as the United Sta
18、tes and Canada. Perhaps the nearest modern equivalent in Anglo America is the Amish, a German American farming sect that largely renounces the products and labor saving devices of the industrial age. In Amish areas, horse drawn buggies still serve as a local transportation device and the faithful ar
19、e not permitted to own automobiles. The Amishs central religious concept of Demut “humility”, clearly reflects the weakness of individualism and social class so typical of folk cultures and there is a corresponding strength of Amish group identity. Rarely do the Amish marry outside their sect. The r
20、eligion, a variety of the Mennonite faith, provides the principal mechanism for maintaining order. By contrast a popular culture is a large heterogeneous group often highly individualistic and a pronounced many specialized professions. Secular institutions of control such as the police and army take
21、 the place of religion and family in maintaining order, and a money-based economy prevails. Because of these contrasts, “popular” may be viewed as clearly different from “folk”. The popular is replacing the folk in industrialized countries and in many developing nations. Folk-made objects give way t
22、o their popular equivalent, usually because the popular item is more quickly or cheaply produced, is easier or time saving to use or leads more prestige to the owner.民间文化是小型的、孤立的、紧密的、保守的、近乎自给自足的群体，具有同样的习俗、同样的人种和强有力的家庭或部族结构以及高度发展的宗教仪式。秩序由宗教或家庭的约束来维持，成员间的关系非常紧密，传统至高无上，很少有变动且变动缓慢。劳动专业分工相对较少。每个人都要做各类活计，
23、尽管男女两性 分工不同。绝大多数物品是手工制造的，经济一般为自给自足型。个人主义和社会阶层在民间文化群体中的发展十分薄弱。在象美国和加拿大这样的工业化国家里， 一成不变的民间文化群体已不复存在了。在当代美洲的英语区，与民间文化最相似的群体也许算是 Amish。Amish 是美国的德裔农耕部落，他们基本上拒绝 接受工业时代的大多数产品和节省劳力的设施。在 Amish地区，轻便马车仍是当地的交通工具，信徒们不允许拥有汽车。Amish 宗教中的核心观念 Demut 即谦卑典型地反映了在民间文化群中个人主义和阶级的不发达。而与此同时，Amish 对群体的认同性却十分强。Amish 人很少和他们宗派以外
24、的 人通婚。其宗教，作为 Mennonite信仰的一种，提供了维护秩序的主要机制。相反，大众文化是包含不同种族的大群体，通常高度个性化而且不断在变化。 人际关系冷漠，劳动分工明确，由此产生了许多专门的职业。世俗的控制机构，比如警察和军队，取代了宗教和家庭来维持秩序，而且实行的是货币经济。由于存在着这些差异，“大众的“与“民间的“可谓大相径庭。在工业化国家以及许多发展中国家里，大众文化正在取代民间文化。民间制造的物品正让位于大众化产品，这通常是因为大众化的物品制造起来更快、更便宜，用起来更容易、更方便或者是能给其所有者带来更多的威望。Vision 视觉(5)Human vision like t
25、hat of other primates has evolved in an arboreal environment. In the dense complex world of a tropical forest, it is more important to see well than to develop an acute sense of smell. In the course of evolution members of the primate line have acquired large eyes while the snout has shrunk to give
26、the eye an unimpeded view. Of mammals only humans and some primates enjoy color vision. The red flag is black to the bull. Horses live in a monochrome world .light visible to human eyes however occupies only a very narrow band in the whole electromagnetic spectrum. Ultraviolet rays are invisible to
27、humans though ants and honeybees are sensitive to them. Humans though ants and honeybees are sensitive to them. Humans have no direct perception of infrared rays unlike the rattlesnake which has receptors tuned into wavelengths longer than 0.7 micron. The world would look eerily different if human e
28、yes were sensitive to infrared radiation. Then instead of the darkness of night, we would be able to move easily in a strange shadowless world where objects glowed with varying degrees of intensity. But human eyes excel in other ways. They are in fact remarkably discerning in color gradation. The co
29、lor sensitivity of normal human vision is rarely surpassed even by sophisticated technical devices.人类的视觉，和其它灵长目动物的一样，是在丛林环境中进化出来的。在稠密、复杂的热带丛林里，好的视觉比灵敏的嗅觉更加重要。在进化过程中，灵长目动物的 眼睛变大，同时鼻子变小以使视野不受阻碍。在哺乳类动物中，只有人和一些灵长目动物能够分辨颜色。红旗在公牛看来是黑色的，马则生活在一个单色的世界里。 然而，人眼可见的光在整个光谱中只占一个非常狭窄的频段。人是看不到紫外线的，尽管蚂蚁和蜜蜂可以感觉到。与响尾蛇不
30、同，人也不能直接感受到红外线。响尾 蛇的感觉器可以感受波长超过 0.7微米的光线。如果人能感受到红外线的话，这世界看上去将十分不同，而且恐怖。到那时，将与夜的黑暗相反，我们能轻易地在 一个奇异的没有阴影的世界里走动。任何物体都强弱不等地闪着光。然而，人眼在其它方面有优越之处。事实上，人眼对颜色梯度具有非凡的分辨能力。普通人类的 视觉感受色彩的灵敏程度，甚至连精密的技术装备都很难超越。Bacteria 细菌(3)Bacteria are extremely small living things. While we measure our own sizes in inches or centi
31、meters, bacterial size is measured in microns. One micron is a thousandth of a millimeter: a pinhead is about a millimeter across. Rod-shaped bacteria are usually from two to four microns long, while rounded ones are generally one micron in diameter. Thus if you enlarged a rounded bacterium a thousa
32、nd times, it would be just about the size of a pinhead. An adult human magnified by the same amount would be over a mile(1.6 kilometer) tall. Even with an ordinary microscope, you must look closely to see bacteria. Using a magnification of 100 times, one finds that bacteria are barely visible as tin
33、y rods or dots. One cannot make out anything of their structure. Using special stains, one can see that some bacteria have attached to them wavy-looking “hairs” called flagella. Others have only one flagellum. The flagella rotate, pushing the bacteria through the water. Many bacteria lack flagella a
34、nd cannot move about by their own power, while others can glide along over surfaces by some little-understood mechanism. From the bacteria point of view, the world is a very different place from what it is to humans. To a bacterium water is as thick as molasses is to us. Bacteria are so small that t
35、hey are influenced by the movements of the chemical molecules around them. Bacteria under the microscope, even those with no flagella, often bounce about in the water. This is because they collide with the watery molecules and are pushed this way and that. Molecules move so rapidly that within a ten
36、th of a second the molecules around a bacteria have all been replaced by new ones; even bacteria without flagella are thus constantly exposed to a changing environment.细菌是极其微小的生物体。我们用英寸或厘米来测量自己的大小，而测量细菌却要用微米。一微米等于千分之一毫米。针头直径大约一毫米。棒状细菌通常有 24 微米长，而圆形细菌的直径一般只有 1微米。因此，即使你把一个圆形细菌放大 1000倍，它也不过一个针头那么大。可是如果
37、把一个成年人放大 1000倍，就会变成 1英里(或 1.6公里)多高。用一般的显微镜观察细菌时，你必须仔细观察才能看见它们。使用 100倍的显微镜时，你会发现细菌不过是隐约可见的小细棒或小点点，而它们的结构你却根本看不出来。使用特殊的着色剂后，你会发现有的细菌上长着不少波状的“毛发“即鞭毛，而有的细菌只有一根鞭毛。鞭毛的旋转可以推动细菌在水中行进。不少细菌没有鞭毛，因而不能自己行进。还有些细菌却能通过某些鲜为人知的机制沿物体表面滑动。我们所熟知的世界在细菌眼中完全是另一个样子。对于细菌来说，水就同糖浆之于人类一样稠密。细菌是如此的微小，周围化学分子的一举一动都会对它们产生影 响。在显微镜下，细
38、菌，甚至包括那些没有鞭毛的细菌，经常在水中跳来跳去。这是因为它们与水分子相撞后，被弹向各个方向。分子移动很迅速，仅 0.1秒之 隔，一个细菌周围的分子就会完全更新。因此，即使是没有鞭毛的细菌也暴露在一个不断变化的环境中。The source of Energy 能量的来源(6)A summary of the physical and chemical nature of life must begin, not on the Earth, but in the Sun; in fact, at the Suns very center. It is here that is to be fo
39、und the source of the energy that the Sun constantly pours out into space as light and heat. This energy is librated at the center of the Sun as billions upon billions of nuclei of hydrogen atoms collide with each other and fuse together to form nuclei of helium, and in doing so, release some of the
40、 energy that is stored in the nuclei of atoms. The output of light and heat of the Sun requires that some 600 million tons of hydrogen be converted into helium in the Sun every second. This the Sun has been doing for several thousands of millions of year. The nuclear energy is released at the Suns c
41、enter as high-energy gamma radiation, a form of electromagnetic radiation like light and radio waves, only of very much shorter wavelength. This gamma radiation is absorbed by atoms inside the Sun to be reemitted at slightly longer wavelengths. This radiation , in its turn is absorbed and reemitted.
42、 As the energy filters through the layers of the solar interior, it passes through the X-ray part of the spectrum eventually becoming light. At this stage, it has reached what we call the solar surface, and can escape into space without being absorbed further by solar atoms. A very small fraction of
43、 the Suns light and heat is emitted in such directions that after passing unhindered through interplanetary space, it hits the Earth.说生命的物理和化学特性必须始于太阳-确切地说，是太阳的核心，而非地球。能量来自太阳的核心。在这里，太阳不停地以光和热的形式向空间倾泻出能量。数 十亿计的氢原子核在太阳的核心碰撞并且聚变生成氦。在此过程中一部分原本储存于原子核中的能量被释放出来。太阳所产生的光和热需要每秒将六亿吨氢转化为 氦。这样的转化在太阳中已经持续几十亿年了。核能
44、在太阳的核心被释放为高能的伽马射线。这是一种电磁射线，就象光波和无线电波一样，只是波长要短得多。这种伽玛射线被太阳内的原子所吸收，然后重新释 放为波长稍长一些的光波。这新的射线再次被吸收，而后释放。在能量由太阳内部一层层渗透出来的过程中，它经过了光谱中 X射线部分，最后变成了光。在此阶 段，能量到达我们所称的太阳表层，并且离散到空间而不再被太阳原子所吸收。只有很小一部分太阳的光和热由此方向释放出来，并且未被阻挡，穿越星空，来到地 球。Obtaining Fresh water from icebergs 从冰山中获取淡水(7)The concept of obtaining fresh wat
45、er from icebergs that are towed to populated areas and arid regions of the world was once treated as a joke more appropriate to cartoons than real life. But now it is being considered quite seriously by many nations, especially since scientists have warned that the human race will outgrow its fresh
46、water supply faster than it runs out of food. Glaciers are a possible source of fresh water that has been overlooked until recently. Three-quarters of the Earths fresh water supply is still tied up in glacial ice, a reservoir of untapped fresh water so immense that it could sustain all the rivers of
47、 the world for 1,000 years. Floating on the oceans every year are 7,659 trillion metric tons of ice encased in 10000 icebergs that break away from the polar ice caps, more than ninety percent of them from Antarctica. Huge glaciers that stretch over the shallow continental shelf give birth to iceberg
48、s throughout the year. Icebergs are not like sea ice, which is formed when the sea itself freezes, rather, they are formed entirely on land, breaking off when glaciers spread over the sea. As they drift away from the polar region, icebergs sometimes move mysteriously in a direction opposite to the w
49、ind, pulled by subsurface currents. Because they melt more slowly than smaller pieces of ice, icebergs have been known to drift as far north as 35 degrees south of the equator in the Atlantic Ocean. To corral them and steer them to parts of the world where they are needed would not be too difficult. The difficulty arises in other technical matters, such as the prevention of rapid melting in warmer climates and the funneling of fresh water to shore in great volume. But even if the icebergs lost half of their volume in towing, the water they could provide would be far ch
