1、英语写作,Academic Writing,组织段落 Paragraph structure,对于综述性论文、文献综述以及前言部分非常重要,In some parts of the world, countries are faced with problems of inadequate and unevenly distributed water resources. Some countries have developed a variety of strategies to meet the water needs of their people and their agricult
2、ure. Such strategies are often implemented in areas.,Topic Sentence,Topic Sentence总结了一段落的主要内容，更好地引导读者，作者也应该围绕它展开段落内容。 Topic sentence 经常放在一个段落的第一句、第二句或者最后一句。有时为了强调也可以用不同语言在不同位置表述。 Topic Sentence特点：包含一些特定信息；能有助于展开整个段落；是一个完整的句子，但是意思不能太宽泛也不能太窄。,Planning a Paragraph,Once you have collected your ideas, an
3、 important step in writing a paragraph is to organise them into points (the main and supporting points) that you wish to include. You should then order the points in a clear and logical way, construct your paragraph and include a topic sentence.,Title：Identify the different kinds of benefits of shop
4、ping online for the customer. Time saved Buying and sending presents to friends in other places Shopping from home,论文组织,组织层次,科技论文经常要表达非常复杂的问题，所以需要特别注意语言的组织，有时需要用不同层次的组织方式。 Generic 基础的（普通的） Macro-展示论文大部分内容和观点时采用的层次，根据写作目的有一些组织原则. Micro -论文中部分内容可能用到这种层次，特别体现句子间的某种特殊关系或者例证，如对比、因果,Organising at Macro Le
5、vel,一般来说，应该首先根据你的写作目的来组织论文层次结构，如为了展示一个事物的两个方面；为了尽力阐述某个观点，使读者信服。 希望表述清楚不同观点的重要性，Order of Importance 有很多Topic要阐述清楚，每个Topic可能还有正反不同观点-Order of topic 对于某个Topic可能有很多观点，作者可能对不同的观点进行argue，然后证明自己的观点是正确的，Argument-driven 对于某个topic的阐述涉及到四个基本因素：在某种特定的情况下，有一些问题存在，提出解决问题的方法，最后评估这种解决方案的效果，SPSE (Situation Problem S
6、olution Evaluation) 希望清楚地展示topic的两个方面，Two-sided approach,Organizing at Micro Level,在科技论文写作中，尤其在表述不同事物或者观点之间的关系时，这是最常见的一种组织方式。 主要包括： Describing location Classifying/CategorisingLinking causes and effects, reasons, explanations and resultsDescribing a process or procedureGiving examplesDefining termsC
7、omparing and contrastingDescribing objects/apparatusNarratingDescribing hierarchical structures,Despite the fact that it is increasing, computer crime is still often perceived as being less significant than other types of crime. Consequently, it does not always receive the public attention and polic
8、e resources that it should. The online sales process is largely automated. A customer is taken through a series of interactive steps, which allows them to select and place their order for goods. In the next stage, the customers address . The customer is then asked to Shortly afterwards, the customer
9、. Other forms of identification such as voice recognition and DNA profile matching may also have a role in maintaining security in the future.,Outsourcing can be defined as using outside suppliers of . If a company does not outsource, it can expect to have higher recruitment costs since it will need
10、 to provide the necessary staff for non-core areas as well as for cost-effective core ones. In contrast, if work is outsourced, The electronic switch is composed of the switch itself, which controls the flow of an electric current around a circuit pathway. The switch can.,Organising for Academic Des
11、criptions,科技论文中经常需要描述一个地方，一个设备等； Outside inwards 如描述一个大学或者一个城市，从主线到特定的地方或者特定的建筑 ； Whole to parts 如描述一个特定的机械设备，先整体描述再分部分介绍； Left side to right side 如组装一个复杂的科学设备，从左到右描述； Top to bottom 如描述一个沉积的地层。,文字风格、形式-Patterns in texts,先介绍（引入）一个topic或者theme，然后详细展开或者解释-Topic - Elaboration 研究者以a theory or belief on a
12、 topic开始，然后尽力给出facts or evidence，最后draws a conclusion，如研究者说明某个化学物质和癌症有关；大量用于描述研究行为-Hypothesis Evidence Conclusion 描述一项研究或者一个实验的过程，such as first, then, after that, and finally that show the order of the stages involved-Sequential,首先给出overall or general idea，然后是a particular example or illustration，如Ge
13、neral Specific； 首先a brief (perhaps one sentence) summary of the event or point ，然后further detailed information that supports the main point，以此证明观点是正确的-Main facts Supporting details Note：通常一篇论文可能采用多种组织方式，如一篇研究论文整体结构是Hypothesis - Evidence - Conclusion ，在hypotheses部分采用Topic Elaboration，在evidence 部分采用Se
14、quential pattern,Paraphrasing and summarising 解释和总结,用于文献综述等,写科技论文时经常需要引用其他文献中的主要思想，但是又不能总是“直接引用”，这时就需要Paraphrasing and summarising； 例：Welsh (1994:424) states that costs can be kept down and quality increased by using previously developed software again. Either the whole software package can be used
15、again or part of it can be used to make a different product. When？ Why？ How？,避免太多的直接引用； 更加精确、简短、合适地支撑自己论文的观点； 更加适合自己论文的风格； 不是大量copy原文的语句，而是用自己的语言更明确、简短地说明原文的思想； 一般步骤包括：仔细阅读原文，弄明白原文的主要意图，根据你论文的目的选择相关信息，用自己的语言完整描述原文思想（不同观点之间可能需要加上不同关联词如 however, although, since），最后检查自己的综述是否与原文相符。,Expressing cause and
16、effect,连接词,as, consequently, so, due to (1)Consequently, many companies now have sophisticated firewalls and full time computer programmers to deal with virus attacks and ensure a fully functioning network. (2) New viruses appear in the wild almost everyday and so new virus identification files need
17、 to be downloaded and installed by users regularly. (3)A network crash due to the fact that it cannot cope with the sheer volume of traffic.,the cause, a result(1)The cause of many virus attacks is perhaps rogue programmers trying to outwit larger corporations. (2) A result has been a proliferation
18、of anti-virus software programs. has led to, have resulted in (1)The widespread use of integrated network systems for both business and leisure has led to increased opportunities for hackers to exploit the weaknesses of such highly integrated software. (2)These attacks have also resulted in the regu
19、lar release of new patches by software writers that repair the security weaknesses in existing products.,Affect and Effect,Affect is always a verb. Effect can be a verb or a noun depending on its meaning; (1) The Director wanted to effect a change in research proposal procedures. (2) The cut in fund
20、ing will affect the amount of research that is carried out.,Grammar in writing,Articles,以下规则True or False In grammar, THE is called the DEFINITE ARTICLE and A and AN are known as the INDEFINITE ARTICLE; AN is used in front of words spelled with a vowel (A, E, I, O, U) at the beginning; The indefinit
21、e article is used when a person or concept is mentioned for the first time and subsequent references to the noun, once it has been identified, use the definite article, for example: Central to the use of a notebook as a desktop computer is a docking station. The docking station consists of a hardwar
22、e frame with a set of electrical connections.,If there is only one example of a concept in existence we use the indefinite article, e.g. An internet, a sun in our solar system； When an adjective is used as a noun to represent a a group of people or examples of a type, the definite article is always
23、used e.g. The unexpected may occur; It is necessary to address the problem of the unemployed. Similarly, nationalities can be referred to using the definite article together with the adjective, e.g. the British; the Chinese； The definite article is used when making a general statement using an uncou
24、ntable noun but no article is used when making a specific point about an uncountable noun, e.g. The time management is a necessary skill for a researcher to develop; software that the company has produced has proved unsatisfactory.,A general statement can be made which refers to all examples of a ki
25、nd of countable noun using an indefinite article and the singular form of the countable noun, e.g. A PC card is an insertable piece of hardware for notebooks. It is also possible to make this kind of statement using the plural form with no article, e.g. PC cards are insertable pieces of hardware for
26、 notebooks (notice that in this case, other countable nouns in the sentence are generally put in the plural form too). Both countable nouns in their plural form and uncountable nouns require the definite article in front of them when being used in a specific context, e.g. Eighty percent of the custo
27、mers who were interviewed responded positively; The companys turnover this year has been exceptional .,No article is needed in front of the superlative form, first, second etc, and next e.g. It is largest dam of its kind in Asia; It was first problem to be solved by the team; Next consideration is t
28、he implementation of the scheme. The definite article can be used with a singular noun to make a general statement about that group. The statement refers to the whole class and not to the individuals in the class e.g. The fast food outlet has become an established part of urban life. Here the use of
29、 the indefinite article would not be possible because the statement refers to all the members of the group rather than the group itself so the following sentence would be wrong: A fast food outlet has become an established part of urban life.,Modals,May, might, and could are all used to add uncertai
30、nty to a statement. In other words, no firm conclusion can be drawn about the point expressed. For example: All three of the studies show that the vaccine may/might/could lead to unpleasant side effects.Can is used for straightforward, factual possibility. The statement does not include any writer j
31、udgement about the matter. For example: A firewall can stop hackers from accessing the network.,May, might and could can be used to suggest a future outcome without evidence and when used like this they often carry a sense of the writer hoping or fearing it will happen.For example: The implementatio
32、n of the policy may/could/might increase job opportunities in the north of the country and even boost consumer spending; Global warming and the spread of the mosquito may/could/might lead to thousands of deaths from malaria in Europe this century.,It might be concluded that further research into thi
33、s disease is unnecessary, since nowadays the condition is easily treated by oral medication. Such a view would be mistaken because . It could be claimed that software programs of this kind are of little use against determined hackers. However, this is unlikely to be the case since. The way to manage
34、rial effectiveness lies in delegation. This might be the view of some management consultants but it could be argued that. 作者使用might、could实际上是为了弱化这种观点，然后再更加容易批判并提出不同观点,Nouns,Noun Phrases,(Article) (adjective) Noun (singular) + Noun (singular or plural) Examples: computer technology, computer viruses,
35、 internal security matters, telephone calls, identity theft, Spam mail, product components, a web programmer, automatic cost comparisons the e-commerce sector (Article) (adjective) Noun + s (or s) + Noun (singular or plural) Examples: childrens Internet activities, a companys activity, customers cre
36、dit cards, the outsourcers control (Article) (adjective) + Noun (singular or plural) + preposition + Noun (singular or plural) Examples: an increase in computer crime, huge sums of money, forms of identification, advocates of censorship, scope for freedom of expression, the need for adjustments,Noun
37、s and countability,Countable (C) program | interface | byte | database | system | motherboard | device | project | network | circuit | appliance | model Uncountable (U) multitasking | storage | compatibility | image | information | engineering | equipment | circuitry | research | spam Both (C) and (
38、U) application | memory | resolution | protocol | technology | architecture | software,Passive form,The passive,Expressing general beliefs Total world population is estimated to be about 6 billion. AIDS is believed to have started in Africa. It is assumed that politicians will represent the people.*
39、 Focusing on the result of an action rather than the agent carrying it out In any research study, something is investigated. In the Methods section of a research article, an explanation will be provided of how the data was collected or the research was conducted.,Focusing the readers attention on th
40、e first part of a sentence Example A Scientists conducted tests on the substances to try to ascertain levels of toxicity. Example B Tests were conducted on the substances to try to ascertain levels of toxicity. Helping the writer to sound more objective Example A According to a report by the Departm
41、ent of Transport (2001), congestion on UK roads has been increasing over a ten-year . Example B In my opinion, roads in the UK are becoming more congested.,Alternatives to the passive voice,注意不能滥用被动语态，有时主动语态更加明确和精炼； Extract A From the samples taken from patients, it was indicated that the disease wa
42、s more difficult to tackle than previously thought. Extract B Samples taken from patients indicated that the disease was more difficult to tackle than previously thought.,用名词作主语代替被动语态 The sample was analysed to reveal great differences between ages. Analysis of the sample revealed great differences
43、between ages. 主语是具体实物 It was found from the experiment that The experiment showed that,Prepositions,Verbs ：agree，aim，comment，Deal Adjectives： aware，dissatisfied，accustomed ，sympathetic Nouns：comparison，reaction，rise，solution,Reporting verbs,Reporting verbs in academic writing,Common reporting verbs
44、Smith described the situation in Asia. He observed that apples of this type are usually green. Smiths work established that buyers dislike unnaturally coloured apples. The study revealed that green apples were less popular with the consumer than red ones. The research confirmed that buyers both in A
45、sia and the UK dislike blue apples. Smiths study addressed the question of male and female preferences.,Objective or Evaluative,Objective: describe, identify, present, propose, report, state, suggest Negative: claim Positive: identify, establish, show,critical reporting verbs,并不是批评作者，只是指出他未报道； Thoug
46、h Jones (1989) discusses hardware requirements at length, she does not deal with system reliability. Indeed she does not cover software either, saying nothing about database design. Howard (1991), on the other hand, treats database design in detail, but does not consider the limitations of databases
47、 in practice. Smith (2001) considers several limitations of database use, but does not address the specific problem of gender preferences.,在某些特定的情况下，需要指出某些文献的弱点，或者问题，而提出“批评”； Though Jones (1989) discusses hardware requirements at length, she fails to mention system reliability. Howard (1991), on the
48、 other hand, treats database design in detail, but ignores the limitations of databases in practice. Smith (2001) considers several limitations of database use, but omits all discussion of the specific problem of gender preferences. Williams (2002) in a long review of Smith (2001) evaluates the rese
49、arch methodology, but completely ignores the sample size.,Tenses used with reporting verbs,所有报道都是过去的事情，是否全部用过去时？ 通常用哪几种时态？ 句子中包括时间表达（e.g. by 1998, recently, to date），是否影响时态？ 作者对于报道的态度是否影响时态的选择？,论文编辑与检查 Edit and Proofread,编辑和修改论文,Is the main idea clearly expressed? Is the content relevant to the ques
50、tion or the topic? Are there sufficient examples to support the main ideas? Is there a clear structure to the content? Is the information well-linked together?,Editing for coherence,Does the text make sense? Are the ideas presented in a logical order? Does the text make use of signpost/linking language to guide the reader? Have you put known information BEFORE new information? / generalisation BEFORE examples? Have you made the link between ideas clear?,
