1、Production and Reception Strategies,1. Introduction,Production and reception strategies are defined by Tarone as attempts to use existing L2 knowledge efficiently and clearly with a minimum of effort. (1981) Language use, therefore, is characterized by both production and reception strategies, which
2、 operate when the learner utilizes available resources easily and subconsciously. (unproblematic use of L2 knowledge vice versa the communication strategies when initial plans prove problematic.) Ideally it ought to also to consider the reception process, but for reasons of space and also because th
3、is is an aspect of the black box which has received little consideration it will be omitted.,2. The skeleton and constituent model of language production,It is hypothesized that L2 production follows the same pattern as native-speaker production. The model which is summarized below is that described
4、 by Clark and Clark. (1977),Planning program 1 communicative goal 2 discourse plan 3 sentence plan 4 constituent plans,Articulatory program 1 meaning selection 2 syntactic selection 3 content word selection 4 affiix and function word formation 5 specification of phonetic segments,Motor program,Durin
5、g the process of the planning program, the discourse and sentence plans together constitute a skeleton(基本框架） In addition, a motor program is an abstract representation of movement that centrally organizes and controls the many degrees of freedom involved in performing an action. As far as I concerne
6、d, the motor program is the final performance or the actual production of the utterance.,3. Minimal and maximal strategies,Littlewood(1979) proposes a production model to account for L2 use, closely following that of Clark and Clark. He distinguishes two sets of strategies based on the model: minima
7、l and maximal strategies.,Minimal strategies characterize production in the early stages of SLA. They involve the learner simplifying both the constituent planning and articulatory stages in a number of ways. The learner may not develop constituent plans for all of the sentence. Instead he may plan
8、only for the minimal number of unshared meaning elements, allowing the situational context to stand in for those missing. Ellis describes this as a strategy semantic simplification. Simplification may take place in any stages.,Maximal strategies occur when the learner has developed both sufficient L
9、2 knowledge and adequate control over this knowledge to realize all constituents linguistically, thus removing the need to rely on shared knowledge. They also involve the ability to make linguistic selections of sufficient delicacy to encode stylistic markers such as those relating to politeness.,4.
10、 Planners and correctors,The skeleton and constituent model also provides a framework for interpreting Seligers(1980) interesting distinction between planners and correctors.,The planners are those who plan each constituent carefully before starting the articulatory program while the correctors only
11、 partially plan each constituent before embarking on the articulatory program.,Planning strategies: semantic and linguistic simplification. They are the procedures used by learners in the early stage of SLA when he has minimal L2 resources.,a. Semantic simplification: it occurs when the learner sele
12、ct specific constituents for encoding and leaves the others to be inferred by the listener from extralinguistic cues(语言以外的提示). The deleted constituents are semantic(agent, object,dative动词的间接宾语,etc.),Example: He is hitting me. Which involves the case categories: (Agent)(Action process)(Patient) The l
13、earner may produce any one of the following abridged versions: Hitting (=Action process) He hitting (=Agent+Action process) Hitting me (=Action process+Patient) He me (=Agent+Patient),Ellis suggested that semantic simplification provides a powerful explanation of processes involved in both L1A&SLA.,
14、b. Linguistic simplification: it involves the omission of form words （虚词）and affixes.,Example: He hitting me. There is plenty of evidence to suggest that the learner does in fact omit functor, the aux-be, though he has acquired the necessary forms. It is a common characteristic of the learners varia
15、ble use of his L2 knowledge. This also accounts for simplified registers such as motherese and foreigner talk. So linguistic simplification is a very general knowledge production strategy.,Correcting strategies: monitoring（监控） The principal strategy responsible for correcting is monitoring.,Krashens
16、 monitor model of L2 performance, he argues that the learner possesses two kinds of knowledge, which are implicit or intuitive knowledge(referred to as acquisition by Krashen) and explicit or metalinguistic knowledge(learning). According to him, the learner initiates utterances using only implicit k
17、nowledge（显性知识） but is able to monitor his performance with explicit knowledge（隐性知识）.However, his view is under controversy by other scholars. b. Morrison and Low(1983) propose a similar production model to Clark and Clarks in order to discuss the role of monitoring. They distinguish post-articulator
18、y monitoring which occurs after, before or during the articulatory program. This kind of monitoring can be carried out on lexis, syntax, morphology and phonetic realization, so it can occur at any five stages.,5. Summary,Production comprises a hierarchical process involving a planning, an articulation and a motor programme. This process is common both to native speakers and to L2 users. There are existing some distinctions and branches among them. So we may understand them clearly and whats more, we should hold our critical thinking to get our own conclusion based on their development.,
