1、段落的展开法1段落的设计段落需要事先设计好。首先要定下一个主题或一个中心意思，并用一句话表达出来(即主题句)；其次，选择有助于阐述这一中心意思的例子或细节，把它们一一列出；最后，把这些细节按逻辑顺序排好，一个段落的初稿就这样设计出来了。初学者最好先写一个提纲。比方说，要写一个关于集邮的段落，可以先写下这样一个中心句：“集邮是一个很有意思的业余爱好” ，然后列出下面几点：(1)邮票上印有美丽的图案；(2)邮票上印有历史人物的画像； (3)每当收集到过去未见过的邮票时，我总是格外高兴；(4)从收集的邮票里，我能学到不少知识。当你重读以上写好的四点提纲时，也许会发现最后一点还是放在前面更为合适。按照
2、这个提纲，你可以写出下面的段落：Philately is an interesting hobbyEvery time I openmy albums and look at the stamps Ive collected over theyears，I learn something newOn many of them are printed drawings or pictures of rare birds，animals，trees orflowersUnder a magnifying glass they look very beautiful，and they help to
3、 increase my knowledge of natureOn other stamps there are portraits of historical figures，such as Qu Yuan and DrSun Yatsen, George Washington and Chester WNimitsWhenever I see an unfamiliar name，I will try to find some information about the person by consulting an encyclopedia. In this way I have co
4、me to know something about quite a few people who are famous for one reason or anotherSome of my friends and relatives who know I am interested in stamps often show me used envelopesIf I see a stamp which I have never seenbefore or I havent got yet，I will ask them to give it tome，and it seems that t
5、hey are always kind enough tooblige meIt is always a delight to add a new stamp to mycollection，and the more stamps I have，the more interested I am in philately上面的这一段一开头就先提出一个论点点出集邮的好处，随后举出实例加以说明。这里用的是以实例展开段落的方法。2按时间展开讲故事或追述往事时最简单、也最清楚的表达方式就是按事件发生的时间顺序来叙述。先发生的事情先讲，后发生的事情后讲。My heart gave a leap when
6、I heard the announcementthat our train would soon arrive at its destination-BeijingLike other passengers，I began to collect my things and put my mug，towel，atlas，apples，and other things into my bagTo the tune of a beautiful song the train pulled into the station and gently stopped by a platformI walk
7、ed out of the train and was carried forward by the stream of people intoan underground passage and then into a big hallAs I stepped out of the station，I was dazzled by the bright autumn skies of BeijingThough I had been on the train for more than thirty hours and spent an sleepless night，I didnt fee
8、l tired at all，and I believed my days in Beijing would be as sunny as the skies3按过程展开为了讲清楚如何做一件事情，我们通常按其步骤的先后顺序逐项说明。在这一类文章里常常用祈使句和不定代词“你”来表达。如果文章中的说明至今有效，须在行文中使用现在时。请看下面的例子：Once you encounter a person who has stopped breathing,you should begin immediately to do mouth-to-mouth breathing.First，place t
9、he victim on his back and remove any foreignmatter from his mouth with your fingersThen tilt his head backwards，so that his chin is pointing upNext，pull his mouth open and his jaw forward，pinch his nostrils shut to prevent the air which you blow into his mouth from escaping through his noseThen plac
10、e your mouth tightly over the victimsBlow into his mouth until you see his chest riseThen turn your head to the side and listen for the outrush of air which indicates an air exchangeRepeat the process 4. 按空间展开我们有时需要对一个地方进行一番描述。不论我们要描述的是一个大国家还是一个小房间，我们都要先设计好描述的顺序。要做到这一点，就要先搞清楚所要描述的地方有哪些细节，它们之间的方位关系如何
11、，从哪一个角度开始展开描述比较清楚等。对一个地方的描述最忌零散无章，使读者摸不着头脑。请看下面的例子：In the middle of the rectangular-shaped courtyardstood three magnolia trees，all in full bloomA little girl was hopping among them，now gazing at a bud，now collecting fallen petalsUnder one of the trees stood her parents，who，while keeping an eye on he
12、r，were examining the milk white blossoms with great interest and admirationIn front of another tree a young couple，fresh and bright as the flowers，were posing for a pictureAt one end of the courtyard a group of youngsters had gathered behind an artist painting a flourishing limb，which looked so char
13、ming and real that a boy stooped to sniff at a half-open flowerAt the opposite end a few elderly men and women stood admiring the leafless flowering trees and the people looking at them在上面这个段落里，作者从院子中心的几棵树写起，接着又写在树底下和树周围的人们的活动，随后描写离树比较远的在院子两端的人群。作者用从中心到边缘的顺序来描写一个小院子，从而使文章显得错落有序，条理清晰。再看一个例子：MrCook，a
14、renowned American historian，arrangesthe books on his bookshelves in a unique wayIn the upper right hand corner，there are books about the development of the early colonies in New England and the War of IndependenceRight under them can be found books on the slave trade，the plantation system and the gr
15、owth of the southern statesThe 1eft side of the shelf contains hundreds of books concerning subjects of the Westward Movement，Indian culture，the cowboyscontributions to American society and the Gold Rush in CaliforniaFrom the description above，one can see that MrCook regards his bookshelves as a map
16、 of the USand arranges his history books accordinglyIt is odd，but it is convenient以上一段对藏书摆法的描述既简单又明了，令人一目了然。描述的顺序是从书架的右上方到右下方，然后再移到左边。5举例和归纳通过举例来展开段落，可以使中心句的抽象意思具体化，给读者留下一个清晰、有趣、深刻和信服的印象。例子可以只举一个，也可以举几个。请看下面的例子：This term several useful and interesting courses havebeen offeredAn Introduction to Europ
17、ean Culture，forinstance, gives us a lot of background knowledge of thehistory of European philosophy，literature，and artsFrom time to time we see slide shows of famous paintingsand hear tapes of famous pieces of music，and they makethe lectures all the more interestingAmerican Society andCulture is an
18、other course that attracts a 1arge audienceThe teacher，who visited the United States recently，discusses new trends and changes in American life as well as American history and traditionsWe 1ike these and other courses very much，because they help us not only to improve our English but also to broaden
19、 our vision在这段中作者举了两个例子来说明为什么有些课程“既有用又有趣” 。下面的段落用几个名人的例子来阐述一个抽象的概念：“坚持不懈的调查研究” ，从而使之具体化，并且给人留下了深刻的印象。同时我们可以注意到，举例时不必每次都使用“例如” 、 “比方说”这样的词语。Knowledge often results only after persistent investigationAlbert Einstein，after a lengthy examination of the characteristics of matter and energy，formulated his
20、 famous Theory of Relativity，which now acts as a basis for further research in nuclear physicsUsing plaster casts of footprints，fingerprints，and stray strandsof haira detective pertinaciously pursues the criminalAfter years of work Annie Jump Cannon perfected the classification ofthe spectra of some
21、 350 000 starsInvestigations into the causes of polio have provided us with the means for prevention and cure of this dreaded disease only after many years of researchAs students，we too are determined in our investigation to find，retain，and contribute to the store of human knowledge下面的段落是描述性的，包含了许多细
22、节。首句即是中心句，所有的细节都围绕着这个中心句展开。这种方法是从概括到具体。My little niece，a ten-month-old baby, is the most lovelychild I have even seenHer face is like a red apple and her eyes are like bright starsWhen you carry her in your arms，she likes to put her arms around your neckAll the grownups in the family love her very m
23、uch and often try to make her smileBut quite often it is she who makes us laughOnce I winked at her and she smiledWhen I did it again，she watched me attentivelyThen she tried to imitateWhile we closed one eye to wink，shehad to close both eyes at the same time，and then quicklyopened them againAnd tha
24、t was her way to winkWeall burst into laughterWhen we looked at her again，shewas staring at us，puzzled，as if she was asking：“Whatare you laughing at?”另一种通过举例或细节展开段落的方法是从细节到归纳，即先铺叙细节，把归纳性的中心句放在段尾。请看下面的例子：Whether you do or do not open a gift in the presenceof the giver；whether you should or should not
25、 turn theplate over to look at the makers symbol on the back；whether you put your coat on before or after you leave thehosts house；whether you eat as quietly or as noisily aspossible；whether you carry on a conversation during ameal；whether you walk in front of or behind a seated person；whether it is
26、 a friendly or an offensive gesture to putyour hand on the arm of the person with whom you aretalking-these and a thousand other questions are mattersof cultural definitionNone of them is inherently right orwrong，and none is good or bad manners except as a society defines it so段落中的细节和例子往往按照它们的重要性或趣味
27、性排列：分量轻或趣味性弱的靠前，分量重或趣味性强的置后。请看下面的例子：It was a typical Russian winterThe first snowstormhad turned everything whiteThe wind was howling，swirling and tumbling over a vast land of ice and snow，freezing and destroying whatever stood in its wayAragged，misshapen army was staggering and strugglingdesperatel
28、y for survival，cold，hungry and decreasing insize every dayThe year was 1812The army was the remnants of Napoleons expeditionary force which waswithdrawing from Russia after receiving its worst defeatThe war with Russia turned out to be a fiasco for Napoleonand had a devastating effect on his career按
29、重要性或趣味性的顺序叙述不仅适用于举例和归纳展开法，也适用于比较和对比展开法以及原因和结果展开法等。6类比和对比类比和对比是写作中常用的方法。我们通常对比中国的过去和现在，对比中西方文化，对比汉语和英语，等等。通过类比和对比，我们往往可以对事物有一个更加明了的认识。严格地说，类比用于指出同一范畴的事物之间或者几个人之间的相似之处，而对比则用于指出他(它)们之间的不同之处。但实际上，类比和对比常常同时使用，原因是人们在议论两个人或事物时，往往既提出二者的相同之处，又注意到他(它)们之间的差异所在。可通过两种不同的做法，用类比和对比的方法展开段落。第一种称为整体类比或整体对比法，即在阐述完一件事物
30、的特点之后，再摆出与之相比的另一件事物的全部特点。需要注意的是，进行类比或对比的两件事物的方面应一致，顺序应相同，否则就会相互脱离不成对比。第二种作法称为交替类比或交替对比法，即逐条比较或对比两个人或两种事物的特点。下面的段落中使用的是交替类比法：The same qualities that make people good houseguests make them good hospital patientsGood houseguests can expect a reasonable amount of service and efforton their behalf，and ho
31、spital patients can alsoGuestshave to adjust to what is for them a change，and certainlyhospital patients must do the sameNo one appreciates acomplaining，unpleasant，unappreciative house guest，andthe hospital staff is no exceptionHouse guests who expectvast changes to be made for their benefit are not
32、 popularfor longCertainly nurses and other personnel with theirroutines feel the same way about patients in their careJust as house guests must make adjustments to enjoy theirvisits, so patients must make adjustments to make theirstays reasonably pleasant and satisfying under the circumstances从上面的段落
33、可以看出，交替类比法或交替对比法用于集中讨论两种事物的几个特点，先指出一种事物的一个特点，接着同另一种事物的相应的特点进行比较。这一方法适用于讨论内涵比较简单，特点比较突出的事物。下面请看另一个例子：The television western of several years ago differsgreatly from the western of todayTen years ago，for example，the swindler or bank robber in a western could be identified not by the crimes he committe
34、d so much as by the color of the clothing he wore-which was blackToday the television western reveals the villain by mannerisms and personalityAt one time，every western had a superhuman，invincible “good guy” with whom the viewers could identify because he too 1ived out on the farmCurrently，the centr
35、al figures of the western are average people who may live on a middleclass street in any part of the countryThey are characters like the bus drivers，mailclerks and accountants who live next door to you in suburbiaAt night they come in off the horses to ride the television rangeThey become persons wh
36、o respect others，drink and smoke only just a bit，and are able not only to outshoot the“bad guy”，but also to outsmart him with good common sense当我们想深入地讨论两种事物的相似的特点而这些相似特点的内涵比较复杂，需要详细解释时，可以先详尽阐述一事或一人的各种特点然后再同相比者进行全面的比较。这就是整体比较法。下面看一个例子：Although Ulysses SGrant and Robert ELee werefierce adversaries dur
37、ing the Civil War，their lives，both military and nonmilitary，had a great deal in commonGrant descended from a family whose members participated in the American RevolutionHe received his commission of second lieutenant from West Point and served in the SpanishAmerican WarHe was later summoned by Presi
38、dent Lincoln to assume command of the Union Forces during the Civil WarAfter the Civil WarGrant suffered financial problems and was forced to declare bankruptcyLee also descended from family which engaged in the American RevolutionHe，too，received his commission from West Point and later fought in Me
39、xico during the Spanish-American WarHis fame as a military strategist during the Civil War，when he was the commander of the Confederate armies，is well knownAlthough it is not always pointed out by historians，he，like Grant，had financial difficulties after the Civil War and was compelled to declare ba
40、nkruptcyBy securing a post as president of Washington College，he was able to avoid additional poverty上面一段中所用的方法也可用于对比，请看下面一段：In discussing the relative difficulties of analysis Which the exact and inexact sciences face，let me begin with an analogyWould you agree that swimmers are less skillful athle
41、tes than runners because swimmers do not move as fast as runners? You probably would notYou wouldquickly point out that water offers greater resistance toswimmers than the air and ground do to runnersAgreed，that is just the pointIn seeking to solve their problems，the social scientists encounter grea
42、ter resistance than thephysical scientistsBy that I do not mean to belittle thegreat accomplishments of physical scientists who have beenable，for example，to determine the structure of the atomwithout seeing itThat is a tremendous achievement；yetin many ways it is not so difficult as what the social
43、scientists are expected to doThe conditions under which thesocial scientists must work would drive a physical scientistfranticHere are five of those conditionsHe can makefew experiments；he cannot measure the results accurately；he cannot control the conditions surrounding the experiments；he is often
44、expected to get quick results with slowacting economic forces；and he must work with people，not with inanimate objects 比较法中有一种特殊的形式被称为比拟。即把属于两个不同范畴的事物的相似之处加以比较。请看下面的例子：Electricity is transferred from one place to another inmuch the same manner as waterA water pipe performs the same function as a leng
45、th of wireThe pipe carries water to its point of use in the same manner as wire carries electricity to its point of useA blown fuse results from the same thing as a burst water pipeBoth give out due to extreme pressure applied to the walls of the carrierA switch is to electricity what a faucet is to
46、 waterBoth of them control the flow of the substanceSince electricity and water have some common properties，Understanding the job of the plumber will help understanding the work of the electrician比拟适用于解释抽象的思想。它能用具体的事物来描述人们无法通过五官所体会到的经验或想法，使人们对这一经验或想法有了一个清楚明确的理解。请看下面的例子：Some old people are oppressed
47、by the fear of death The best way to overcome itso at least it seems tomeis to make your interests gradually wider and moreimpersonal, until bit by bit the walls of the ego recede，and your life becomes increasingly merged in the universallifeAn individual human existence should be like a riversmall
48、at first，narrowly contained within its banks，and rushing passionately past rocks and over waterfallsGradually the river grows wider，the banks recede，the waters flow more quietly and in the end，without any visible break，they become merged in the sea，and painlessly lose their individual beingThe man w
49、ho，in old age，can see his life in this way will not suffer from the fear of death，since the things he cares for will continue 从上面的段落中我们可以看到，作者用河流比拟人生十分精辟。人生与河流是两个完全不同的概念，而作者通过用这个比拟把一些深奥难懂的道理明明白白地阐述出来，从而给人留下了难忘的印象。7原因与结果日常对话中，我们常常问“为什么” ，也常常回答带“为什么”的问题，可见分析原因和结果是司空见惯的事情。分析原因和结果，要力求理由充足，逻辑性强。事件发生的原因往往不止一个，后果也不止一个，在进行分析时，要尽量做到讨论全面和选材缜密。主要可通过两种方法，以原因和结果展开段落。第一种是先写出结果，再占用主要篇幅一一写出原因。例如，中心句子是：“在过去几年里，高等教育对于年轻人来说不再像从前那样受到重视了。 ”这里说的是一种后果，接下来应该逐条讨论
