1、倒装谓语动词放在主语之前的这种语法现象称为倒装。从倒装的形式来看，可分为全部倒装(full inversion)和部分倒装(partial inversion)两种。前者是指整个谓语置于主语之前，而后者仅是指助动词、情态动词或 be 动词等功能置于主语这前。引起倒装的情况多种多样，倒装的表现形式大体有下列几种：1在疑问句中例 1：How are you getting along with your work?例 2：Is this report written in detail?注：如疑问词作主语或者作定语修饰主语时，不发生倒装。2在 there be 及其类似结构中例 1：There a
2、re forty students in our class.例 2：There seem to be still some elements undiscovered yet.例 3：There stands a bridge across the river.3在表示祝愿的句子中例 1：Long live the Peoples Republic of China!例 2：May you succeed!例 3：Dog-tired though they were, they continued to march on.4在省略 if 的虚拟语气条件状语从句中这类句子中有 were, ha
3、d, should 等词时，把 were, had 或 should 置于句首。例 1：Were there no air or water, there would be no life in the world.例 2：Had you been more careful, such spelling mistakes might have been avoided.5在 so, nor, neither 或 no more 开头的句子中此类句子通常表示前面一句话中的谓语所说明的情况，也适用于另一句中的主语。例如：1）This problem is not difficult and nei
4、ther is that one.2）Coal is under the ground in some places, and so is oil.6在以具有否定意义的副词、连词及词组开头的句子中这些词和词组通常有：rarely, never, scarcely, no sooner, little, few, hardly, seldom, at no time, in no way, on no account, nowhere, nobody, not only 等。例如：1）Visit our stores. Nowhere else will you find such magnif
5、icent bargains.2）Hardly had he finished his work when the telephone rang.3）Not only did he complain about the food, he also refused to pay for it.4）Little did we think his speech had made so deep an impression on his audience.7在强调表语时例 1：Worst of all were the humiliations.例 2：Such is the case.8在强调宾语时
6、例 1：Still greater contributions should we make to our socialist construction.例 2：Useful chemical fertilizer can we make from the waste liquid.注：当前置宾语由“not a +名词”或者“not a single +名词”构成时，也会引起倒装。例如：Alice had a terrible time touring that country. Not a day did she spend without having some unpleasantnes
7、s with waiters in the hotel.9在强调状语时（1）当句首状语为方位词或拟声词，谓语动词为 go, come 等表示位置转移的动词时句子须倒装。例如：1）Up went the plane.2）In came the chairman and the meeting began.注：如果主语是代词则不发生倒装。例如：1）Out they rushed!2）Lower and lower he bent.(2) 当句首状语为表示地点的介词词组时，句子须倒装。例如：1）Round the corner walked a large policeman.2）Under the
8、 table was lying a half-conscious young man.（3）当句首状语由“only +副词” ， “only +介词词组 ”， “only +状语从句”构成时，句子须倒装。例如：1）Only yesterday did he find out that his watch was missing.2）Only because there were some cancelled bookings did he get some tickets in the end.（4）当句首状语为 here, there, now, then 等时，句子须倒装，主语是代词时，
9、句子不用倒装。例如：1）Here is a ticket for you.2）Now comes your turn.3）Here he comes.（5）以关联词 so (that)开头的句子中，句子须倒装。例如：1）So small was the mark that I could hardly see it.2）So quickly did the workmen finish their work that they were given a bonus.3）So much does he worry about his financial position that he cant
10、 sleep at night.注：在该结构中， “so +形容词”是表语的前置；“so +副词”是状语的前置。10在直接引语之后在叙事性书面语中，直接引语后常跟 asked Mary, answered John, said the old lady, grunted Peter 之类的词语。在这些词语中，动词常的主语之前，主语是代词时，不用倒装。例如：1） “What do you mean?” asked Henry.2） “What do you mean?” he asked.11. often, many a time 等表示频度的状语置于句首时例如：Often did they
11、think of going there, but they never had a chance.12在 as, though 引导的让步状语从句中 在 as, though 引导的让步状语从句中，一般将形容词、副词或名词等置于句首。例如：1）Small as the atom is, we can smash it.2）Big as the workpiece is, it is turned out with much smaller machine tools.替代替代是一种避免重复的连接上下文的手段。在英语中主要有三种替代现象：名词性替代、动词性替代和分句性替代；同理，替代词也分为名
12、词替代词、动词替代词和分句替代词。此外还有状语的替代。一、名词性替代用名词性替代词 one (s), the same, the kind, the sort 等所表示的替代现象叫做名词性替代。1名词性替代词例 1：The child doesnt like this book. Show him a more interesting one. (one = book)例 2：His novel is a bad one for children. (one = novel)2某些不定代词在名词性替代中还可以用一些不定代词来替代。如 all, both, some, any, enough,
13、several, none, many, much, more, (the ) most, (a) few, another, the other, others, either 等。例如：I dont want any more food. Ive had enough.3. one 和 ones 是最常见的替代词one 的复数形式是 ones.one 和 ones 作为替代词只能用以替代可数名词， 不可用来替代不可数名词。例如：1）The grey horse is stronger than the black one.2）The new design is much better th
14、an the old ones.4名词性物主代词 mine，yours名词性物主代词 mine, yours 等可用来代替 my +名词，your +名词等，例如：“Whose is that coat?” “Its mine.”二、动词性替代用动词替代词 do，do so 等所表示的替代现象叫做动词性替代。1谓语的替代形式do 是谓语的替代形式，有时态和人称的变化。例如：1）Some people like a shower after they have played tennis. Peter does, for example.2）John speaks German as fluen
15、tly as Mary does.2由 do，so 等组成的复合替代形式（1） “so +助动词+主语” 。例如：“Mary will enter the university in September.” “So will Joan.”（2） “so +主语+助动词” 。例如：“Ive been to Beijing.” ”So you have.”注：这种结构中第二句的主语与第一句的主语是同一个人，否则应像“so +助动词+主语”的结构一样，主谓要倒装。（3） “主语+（助动词+）do + so” 。例如：“Have you sent your plan to the committee?
16、”“I did so yesterday.”（4） “主语+（助动词+）do + that” 。例如：“Do you know who broke the television set?”“I heard John did that.”（5） “主语+（助动词+）do + it” 。例如：“My brother said he was going to send a letter of protest to the President.” ”I did it last week.”注：如果上文表示否定意义而在简短反应中表示相同的看法时，则用“neither / nor +do +主语” 。此时
17、，do 不是动词替代词，而是助动词。例如：Mary didnt like English, neither did her brother.3.to 代替整个动词不定式当某个动词不定式词组在句子中再次出现时，我们可以只用 to 这个词，而不必重复整个动词不定式词组。例如：1）I went there because I wanted to. (=because I wanted to go there.)2）Perhaps Ill go to Brazil this summer; Id very much like to.3） “Are you and Gillian getting mar
18、ried?” ”We hope to.”4）I think he should get a job, but you cant force him to if hes not ready (to).5）I dont dance much now, but I used to a lot.6）Well never leave home; he hasnt got the courage (to).注 1：有时 to 可省略（尤其是在形容词和名词之后，见例 4、6） 。在某些动词（如try）之后也可省略 to。例如：“Can you start the car?” “Ok, Ill try.”注
19、2：在 want 和 would like 之后，通常不能省略 to。然而，当 want 或 like 用于从句时（例如，在 when, if, what, as 之后） ，to 常常省略。例如：1）Come when you want.2）Ive decided to do what I like.3）Come and stay as long as you like.三、分句性替代用分句替代词 so 或 not 替代整个分句的现象叫做分句性替代。例如：Many people believe that there will be another world war before the en
20、d of the century. My father think so, but I believe not.1分句替代词 so 或 not 可替代 that 从句so 可用来替代肯定的 that 从句，not 替代否定的 that 从句，它们常与 Im afraid, believe, expect, fear, guess, hope, suppose, think 等词语搭配。例如：1） “Have we got enough money?” “I think so.”2） “Were not going to be in time.” “No, I suppose not.”2. s
21、o 与 not 可用来代替 if 后面的从句例 1：Are you free this evening? If so, come and have a drink with us.例 2：Are you busy this afternoon? If not, I wish you would stay with me for a while.3用 it, this, that, such 作为替代词例 1：If you dont work hard, youll regret it. (regret it = regret not working hard)例 2：He was very t
22、ired. This explains why he went to bed early.例 3：Youre trying to cut with the back of the knife; thats a silly thing to do.例 4：I may hurt your feelings, but such (= that) was certainly not my intention.四、状语的替代1时间状语的替代形式主要用副词 then例如：We saw John at eight on Monday evening. We told him then that we cou
23、ld be coming to the party.2地点状语的替代形式主要用副词 here 和 there例如：Mary is in London and John is there too.It 和 that 有时也可以用作地点状语的替代形式，这种场合的 it 和 that 在句中作主语，并可同 there 交换使用，谓语动词是联系动词。例如：They sat right in front of the stage. That / it / There was where the noise was greatest.3方式状语的替代形式用 in that way 和 like that例
24、如：“She plays the piano with great concentration and with great energy.” “Im afraid she doesnt study like that.”I 一致性一、主谓一致主谓一致有许多原则，概括起来不外乎三种一致原则，即语法形式一致，概念一致（语言内容上一致） ，毗邻一致（谓语动词的单复数形式和紧位于其前的主语一致） 。1. 语法形式一致（1）单数主语、单个动词不定式、动名词短语以及句子作主语，谓语动词要用单数形式。复数主语，用 and 或 bothand 连接的动词不定式短语、动名词短语以及主语从句作主语，谓语动词则用
25、复数形式。例如：1) The performance was very funny.2) Serving the people is my great happiness.3) Whether well go depends on the weather.4) Many natural materials are becoming scarce.5) Both you and I are students.6) What I think and what I seek have been fairly reflected in my paper.注 1：在 what 引导的主语从句中，如果主语
26、补语是复数时，谓语动词用复数形式。例如：What we have to learn are the pieces of language that produce inversion.注 2：修饰语对主语的数不起影响。例如：The performance of the first three clowns was very funny.（2）由 as well as, with, along with, like, together with, rather than, except, but, including, accompanied by, plus, besides, in addi
27、tion to, no less than 等引起的结构跟在主语后面，不能看作是并列主语，该主语不受这些词组引导的插入语的影响，主语如是单数，其谓语动词仍然用单数形式。例如：1) My mother, as well as my father, has a key to the office.2) The man together with his wife and children sits there watching TV.3) His sister no less than you is wrong.4) The reading course book, plus its refere
28、nce books, is helpful to college students.注：有时在 with 结构里，加上 both 之后，with 就具有 and 含义。例如：Grandpa Wang with his son, both looking very happy, are taking a walk in the park.(3)有些代词只能指单数可数名词，当它们在句子中作主语时，尽管在意义上是多数，谓语动词仍要用单数形式。这类代词有 either, neither, each, one, the other, another, somebody, someone, somethi
29、ng, anyone, anything, anybody, everyone, everything, everybody, no one, nothing, nobody 等。例如：1) Neither likes the friends of the other. (两人都不喜欢对方的朋友。)2) Everything around us is matter. (我们周围的所有东西都是物质。)(4)在 neither of 与 either of 的结构里，一般语法书都认为谓语动词可用单数形式也可用复数形式，但在美国的 TOEFL 考试内要求用单数形式。例如：1) Neither of
30、them was in good health, but both worked very hard.2) Has either of them been seen recently?(5)当 and 连结的两个名词是指同一个人或同一件事，and 后的名词前没有冠词，谓语动词应该用单数形式；在 and 后面的名词前有冠词，谓语就用复数形式。例如：1)The bread and butter is served for breakfast. (早饭供应黄油面包。)2)The bread and the butter are on sale. (正在出售黄油和面包。)（6）当 one of, a
31、portion of, a series of, a species of, a chain of 结构作主语时，谓语动词要用单数形式。例如：1)One of those students has passed the examination.2)A series of pre-recorded tapes has been prepared for language laboratory use.(7)form of, type of, kind of 结构的谓语视 form, type 与 kind 的单复数而定.these/those kind/type of 后是复数名词，谓语动词用复
32、数形式。例如：1) The kind of books an author writes depends on the kind of man who he is.2) Some new types of cars are now on show.3)These kind of recorders are good.(8)由 one and a half + 复数名词作主语时，谓语动词视名词的单复数形式而定。例如：One and a half apples is left on the plate.(9) 由 the majority of + 名词作主语时，谓语动词视名词的单复数形式而定。例
33、如：1) The majority of the damage is easy to repair.2) The majority of criminals are non-violent.（10）plenty of, half of, a lot of, lots of, heaps of, loads of, scads of 等 + 可数与不可数名词作主语时，不可数名词的谓语只用单数，可数名词的谓语视可数名词的单复数而定。例如：1）Half of this building is to be completed by spring. 2）Half of the buildings hav
34、e been painted completely.3）There is plenty of water in the pail.4）There are plenty of eggs in the box.5）There is loads of milk on the farm.6）There are loads of big red apples on the ground.注：当名词前有其他量词修饰时，谓语动词的单复数形式通常取决于量词。例如：1）Row upon row of soldiers is marching towards us on the field.2）A body of
35、 volunteers has been organized to aid the helpless in their struggle for survival.（11）由 all of, most of, a lot of, some of, none of, plenty of , the rest 等 + 名词作主语时，谓语动词的单数形式应与名词一致。例如：1）None of the books satisfy the students.2）None of this meat is fit to eat.3）All of the research work was designed b
36、y the chief engineer.4）All of the students are against the plan for an outing at this time of the term.（12）由 more than one (或 more than one + 单数名词 )，many a + 单数名词作主语，谓语动词要用单数形式。例如：1）More than one student has passed the examination.2）Many a boy learns to swim before he can read.注：如果 more than 后面是复数名词
37、，则谓语动词要用复数。例如：More than two hundred students have attended the lecture.（13）quantity of + 不可数名词，谓语动词用单数形式; quantities of + 可数与不可数名词，谓语动词用复数形式。例如：1）Great quantities of milk are needed in this city.2）There is a large quantity of milk.（14）如果名词词组中心词是“分数或百分数 + of + 名词 ”，谓语动词的单、复数形式取决于 of 后的名词或代词的单、复数形式。例如
38、：1）Over three-quarters of the swampland has been reclaimed.2）Two-thirds of the people present are against the plan.（15）定语从句谓语动词的单复数形式应与先行词一致。例如：1）He is one of the men who were chosen to represent the group.2） “Keep cool” is the first of the rules that are to be remembered in an accident.注：当 one 之前有
39、the only 等限定词修饰时，定语从句的谓语动词用单数形式。例如：He is the only one of those boys who is willing to take on another assignment.2.概念一致（语言内容上一致）（1）有些集合名词如 crowd, family, team, orchestra（管弦乐队）, group, government, committee, class, school, union, firm, staff, public 等，它们作主语时，谓语动词的数要根据语言内容而定。如果它们作为一个集体单位时，动词用单数形式，如就其中
40、的各个成员来说，则谓语用复数形式。例如：1）His family is going to move.2）His family are very well.3）The public is / are requested not to leave litter in the park.注：如这类词后跟有定语从句时，定语从句的谓语动词也遵循概念一致的原则，强调具体成员时，谓语动词用复数，关系代词用 who; 强调整体时，谓语动词用单数，关系代词用which。例如：1）The government who were responsible for this event attempted to fin
41、d a solution.2）The government which was responsible for this event attempted to find a solution.(2)有些表示总称意义的名词，形式上是单数，而意义上却是复数，谓语动词要用复数形式，如 people, police, militia, cattle, poultry（家禽）等。例如：1）Cattle were allowed to graze on the village common.2）The police are searching for a tall dark man with a bear
42、d.(3)有些名词形式上是复数，而意义上却是单数。如 news, means, works.还有许多以 ics结尾的学科名称，如 economics, physics, mechanics, politics 等，它们作主语时，谓语动词要用单数形式。例如：1）Politics is a complicated business.2）Here is the news.(4)用 and 连接的单数主语，前面有 each, every, many a, no 等修饰时，谓语动词要用单数形式。复数主语与 each 连用时，应不受 each 的影响，谓语动词仍用复数形式。例如：1) Each pen a
43、nd each paper is found in its place.2) Every boy and girl is treated in the same way. 3) Many a boy and many a girl has seen it.4) The old workers and the young each have their own tools.(5)表示重量、度量、衡量、价值的复数名词作主语，谓语动词常用单数形式。例如：1) Twenty miles is a long way to walk.2) Three pints isnt enough to get me
44、 drunk.(6)国家、单位和书报的名称，作为一个单一的概念，其谓语动词要用单数形式。例如：1）War and Peace is the longest book Ive read.2）General Motors has recently closed down a plant. (通用汽车公司最近关闭了一家工厂。)（8）the +形容词作主语时，如主语指的是一类人，谓语动词用复数形式；如果指的是单个人或抽象概念，谓语动词用单数形式。例如：1) The blind are taught trades in special schools.2) The departed was a good
45、 friend of his.3.毗邻一致（就近原则）(1)由连词 or, neitheror, eitheror, not only also, nor 等连接的并列主语，谓语动词的单复数形式按毗邻一致的原则，与贴近它的主语一致。例如：1) He or you have taken my pen.2) Either you or he is no telling the truth.3) Not only the switches but also the old wiring has been changed.(2)在 there be 的结构中，谓语动词的单复数形式一般也采取就近原则。例
46、如：1)There is a desk and four benches in the office.2)There are two chairs and a desk in the office.二、指代一致指代一致是指句中的代词应该在人称、数、性等方面与所指的词保持一致。1.人称一致(1)当代词指代名词或另一个代词时，须在人称上与所指代的词保持一致。例如：1）I recognized one of the girls, but I didnt speak to her.2) That woman said that she was over fifty.3) They asked whom
47、 they should apply to.(2)当代词指代集合名词时，用单数人称代词强调整体，用复数人称代词强调个人。例如：1) The committee have discussed their report on the disaster.2) The audience are raising their hands to signify their approval.(3)当 everyone, everybody, no one, nobody, anyone, anybody, someone, somebody 等作主语时，相应的代词一般采用单数形式。例如：1) If anyo
48、ne calls, tell him Ill be back later.2) Everyone thinks he is the center of universe.注：在非正式文体中，特别是在会话体里，常用代词的复数形式是为了故意不具体说出所指的那个人的性别。例如：1) Has anybody brought their camera?2) No one could blamed themselves.(4)由 neither nor, not only but also, either or, not but, or 等连结的并列主语，其后的附加疑问部分主语用复数代词。例如：1) Ne
49、ither you nor I am wrong, are we?2) Both Tom and Jack came, didnt they?2.性、数、格一致(1)代词的性一般仅限于第三人称。例如：1) China will always do what she has promised to do.2) The boy stood at the door with his hat in his hand.(2) 当 or 或 nor 连接阳性名词或阴性名词时，代词一般和近者保持一致。例如：1) Neither John nor Mary has got what she wanted.2) If you should see Mary or Thomas, tell him the news.(3)单数名词由 and 连接时，相应的代词一般用复数形式。例如：1) Food and rent are more expensive than they used to be.2) Jim and Mary spoke on the subject as if they were experts.3.应注意的问题(1)当句子的主语是 one, 并要在
