1、1Noah Webster, an American lexicographer, wrote, in Rudiments of English Grammar, What is English grammar? The art of speaking and writing the English language correctly, according to the rules and general practice.Where are the rules of the language to be found? In the language itself.语言千变万化，语法就是一种
2、归纳，有归纳就有总结。或者说，语法就是语言的法律。既然是法律，要想说对，不犯错，就得遵守法律。作为语言的专业学习者，更有必要进行系统的学习。可是英语确实很那，甚至连以英语为母语的人都不太容易写出完全正确的句子。本讲义尝试着从句子的结构入手，然后将繁琐的语言点进行从简，以便学习起来更加得心应手。THE SENTENCEA sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought. 一个句子就是一组能够表达一个完整意思或想法的词。关于什么是一个完整的想法或意思，看下边这个例子：The victorious team这几个词 The vic
3、torious team 为我们创造了一个虚拟的形象，但是从交流思想的角度来看，确实还缺少点东西。为了是这一思想表达得更完整，我们必须告诉听众这个团队做了什么，或者这个团队怎么了再或者这个团队是怎么一回事。例如我们可以像下边这样把该句子补全：left the field.was praised by the coach.is from our school.The victorious team lifted the coach on their shoulders.remained calm.won the county championship.再看以下例子：非句子： Millions o
4、f American students now attending our colleges完整句子： Millions of American students are now attending our colleges.非句子：The orchestra working together for five years.完整句子：The orchestra has been working together for five years.大家也许都听说过，汉语的句子是以意役形，而英语则相反，更强调形式。所以英语的句子，相对于比较发散的汉语句子来说，还是比较固定的。从上面的例子也可以看出，英
5、语最基本的结构就是主谓结构，其他复杂的句型就是以此为根本再扩散开来的。所以我们尤其应该把英语句子的这一根本给抓住，给掌握好。先从简单句说起。最简单的句子就是主谓结构了。一个句子包括两个部分：主语和谓语。主语就是正在讨论的对象；而谓语则是关于所讨论对象的内容，也就是说对于所讨论的对象，该句子说了些什么东西。例如：Time flies.在这个句子中，主语就是时间（time）,也就是说，时间是我们要讨论的对象；谓语就是飞逝(flies)，也就是说关于时间我们说的内容是时间飞逝。再如：Into the silent sea sailed the ancient mariner.在这个句子中，主语，也就
6、是讨论的对象，是 the ancient mariner, 而谓语，也就是关2于 the mariner, 这个句子说了点什么内容，是 sailed into the silent sea.接下来再分别看下主语和谓语。上述给的例子都是简单的一个名词或动词做主语过谓语。有时候我们也会碰到复合主语和复合谓语的情况，这些句子也属于简单句。所谓简单句就是由一个（复合）主语和一个（复合）谓语动词所组成的句子，不含从属从句的独立句子。复合主语（compound subject）包括两个或更多主语，这些主语有连词连接并且只有一个相同的谓语动词。常用的连接词有 and 和 or. 例如：Faster serv
7、ice and greater courtesy help increase sales.该句子包含两个主语，这两个主语由 and 连接，而且共有一个谓语动词 help increase sales.所以该句子就是一个由复合主语构成的简单句。复合谓语（compound verb）由两个或更多动词构成，这些动词有连词连接共同拥有一个相同的主语。例如：The librarian stamped the book and gave it to the student.在这个句子当中，stamp 和 give 这两个动词都是该句子的谓语动词，由连词 and 连接，它们的主语都是 the librari
8、an。所以，该句子就是一个有复合谓语构成的简单句。再看一个例子：The boys and his sister study and play together. 这个句子就是由复合主语 boys 和 sister 及复合谓语 study 和 play 构成的简单句。如何找主语呢？通常主语都会在句子开头，然后是谓语动词。但是有时候也有例外。例如在”Out of the stillness came the sound of laughter” 中，谓语动词就在主语之前。接下来介绍一种简单的方法来确定主语。1. First find the verb2. Then ask yourself the
9、 question “who or what?”例如： Driven by instinct, the herd of reindeer moves south each winter.要确定这个句子的主语，我们先找到这个句子的谓语动词-moves,然后问问自己”who or what moves?”, 这样我们就可以找到这个句子的主语 -herd 了。说完最简单的句子-主谓句之后，我们再来扩展一下，看看句子结构。我们知道，英语句子的变化主要都是由动词的变化来体现的，所以句子结构的扩展也应该从谓语动词上来研究。首先我们可以把动词细分为系动词和实意动词。若句子的谓语动词是系动词，那这个句子结构就
10、是我们常说的主系表结构；要是句子的谓语动词是实意动词，我们又可以继续细分，分为及物动词和不及物动词。 若该动词是及物动词，那么该句子就是主谓宾结构了；要是句子谓语动词是不及物动词，那就是简单的主谓结构了。当然各个部分又可以添加一些修饰成分，使得句子变得更复杂。但是最基本的句子结构搞清楚的话，复杂句也就好分析了。由此，我们也就引出了常说的句子分析：1. 主谓结构（S+V）此结构，谓语动词都是不及物动词。My parents live in Beijing.You must get up very early to see the sunrise tomorrow morning. 2. 主系表结
11、构（S+V+SC）此结构，谓语动词都是系动词。He became a teacher of English. Ability is quite useless without opportunity. 3. 主谓宾结构（S+V+O）此结构，谓语动词都是及物动词。The boy found a pretty bird in the nest.In the severity of winter all things patiently wait for the coming of spring.34. 主谓宾宾补结构（S+V+O+OC） ，此结构，谓语动词都是及物动词，并且要求宾语后面接宾语补足语
12、。They made her happy.She kept us waiting for her answer for over a week.From time to time, I hear her sing the German song in her lovely voice.5. 主谓+间接宾语+ 直接宾语， 此结构，谓语动词都可以接双宾语。My sister told me a long story.The Indians taught the settlers how to fish in the frozen river.句子分类（Classification of Sente
13、nces）按照句子用途，句子可以分为陈述句(Declarative sentence)、疑问句(Interrogative sentence)、祈使句(imperative sentence)和感叹句(exclamatory sentence)四类。陈述句就是陈述一个事实，或是表明一个看法等(to make a statement)。I did not sleep well last night. (事实)Beijing is the capital of China. (事实)She may be right.（看法）疑问句就是提出问题(to ask a question)，常见的疑问句包括
14、一般疑问句(General questions)，特殊疑问句(Special questions)，反义疑问句(Disjunctive questions)，选择疑问句(Alternative questions)等。Where are you from? （询问从何处而来？）一般疑问句通常以 yes, no 回答：Are you from China? -Yes, I am.Do you know Chinese? -No, I dont. 这类问句经常用升调。特殊疑问句都用疑问词开始，通常为特殊疑问词+一般疑问句：Where have you been?How do you like th
15、e weather here?这类问句常用降调。反义疑问句由两部分组成，前面为陈述句，后面为简短问句。一般而言，如果前面的陈述句为肯定句，后面部分常为否定句；如果前面为否定句，后面部分则常为肯定句。This is your office, isnt it?Peter hasnt arrived yet, has he?关于反义疑问句的具体细节，我们在以后的章节中会再详细讲解。祈使句就是提出命令、请求等的句子(to command or request)。Take a seat, please.Dont be late again.感叹句就是表示赞美、惊讶等情绪的句子(to exclaim/ t
16、o express strong feeling or emotion)。How beautiful the girl is!What a bright daughter you have!按照句子的结构，句子又可分为简单句(simple sentence)、并列句(Compound sentence) 、复合句(Complex sentence)和并列复合句(Compound-complex sentence)四种。简单句就是句子成分由单词或短语担任，且只有一个主谓结构（由一个（复合）主语和一个（复合）谓语动词组成） ，不包含任何从属从句的独立句子。We love our great mot
17、herland.4The boy and his sister study and play together.并列句就是句子成为都由单词或短语担任，有两个或两个以上的主谓结构，但这些主谓结构之间彼此互不依从，是相互并列的关系。互不依从的主谓结构可以成为是分句，分句之间有并列连词连接或用逗号隔开。Honey is sweet, but the bee stings.（谚）蜂蜜虽甜，但蜜蜂蜇人。Hurry up, its getting late.复合句就是句子的一个或多个成分由从句担任，也就是说，该句子有多个主谓结构，其中的某个或某几个主谓结构是另外主谓结构的某个成分，例如某个主谓结构的主语或
18、宾语是由一个完整的主谓结构构成。What he said confused me.I cant see what you said.并列复合句就是将并列句和复合句都放在一个句子中，即该句既有并列成分，又有从属成分。Say you are sorry, and Ill forgive you. 在这个句子中，逗号前后两部分是由并列连词 and 连接的并列句；而前半部分又包含了Say 的宾语从句（you are sorry 这个主谓结构从句是 say 这个谓语动词 的宾语） 。接下来咱们从句子的各个成分开始细说。首先就是句子的主语。句子的主语又可分为核心主语(simple subject)和完全主
19、语(complete subject)。The students of the school live in large dormitories.在这个句子中，核心主语就是 students, 而完全主语就是 the students of the school.Immigrants from many lands contributed to America.在这个句子中，核心主语是 immigrants，而完全主语是 immigrants from many lands.为简便起见，我们可以说成是，主语由名词、代词或名词性的词组或短语或从句来充当。在上边的两个例子中，主语都是由名词构成的。
20、再看下边的例子：Whos on the phone?They will go shopping tomorrow.在这两个句子中，主语分别是疑问代词 who 和人称代词 they 充当。Going to the movies is a popular pastime.Their coming to help was a great encouragement to us.在以上这几个例子中，第一个句子的主语是由动名词 going to the movies 充当, 第二个句子的主语是动名词加上了自己的逻辑主语。To compromise appears advisable.该句子的主语有动词不
21、定式构成。That price will go up is certain.When hell be back depends much on the weather.What hurt my feelings was the judges comment.Whatever she did was right.在这几个例子中，第一个句子的主语是由 that price will go up 这个从句在充当的。而其他的从句则是由以关系副词 when、及关系代词 what 和 whatever 引导的从句来充当。另外还有两类比较特殊的，再看下边的例子：There is a rainbow in t
22、he sky.There is a boy and two girls dancing on the meadow.5It is easy to criticize others.在这几个句子当中，第一个和第二个句子是由 there 引导的句子，就是我们常说的某处有某物的句型，这种句型的真正主语在后面。这两个句子的主语分别是 a rainbow 和 a boy and two girls. 第三个句子是由 it 做形式主语的句子，真正的主语也被移到了句子后部去了。这样是句子可以变得更平稳，避免头重脚轻的现象。其次就是谓语动词了。谓语动词由动词来充当。谓语也有核心谓语和完全谓语之分。Ana at
23、e her breakfast silently and hastily.在这个句子中，核心谓语就是 ate, 而完全谓语则是 ate her breakfast silently and hastily.英语句子的变化主要就是由句子的谓语动词来体现的，比如说时态、语态等等。这些就涉及到了情态动词(modal verb) 助动词(auxiliary verb) 等等，我们以后再详细说。宾语(object)表示动作的承受者，也可表示动作的结果。宾语同主语相似，主要有名词、代词及名词性的词组或句子构成。宾语又分为直接宾语(direct object)、间接宾语(indirect object)和复
24、合宾语（） 。直接宾语是谓语所表示动作的承受者或表示谓语动作的后果（The direct object of the verb receives the action of the verb or shows the result of the action. It answers the question “what?” or “whom?” after the action verb） 。除了宾语是那些以-self 或者-selves 结尾的反身代词（myself, himself） ，谓语动词的宾语从来都不会同主语是同一人或同一物。Susan defeated Steve at tenn
25、is. (Susan defeated whom?)Drought destroyed the crops. (Drought destroyed what?)间接宾语位置在直接宾语之前，通常是用来告诉谓语动词这一动作是指向谁的(The indirect object of the verb precedes the direct object and usually tells to whom or for whom the action of the verb is done)。从定义来看，间接宾语通常指的就是人了。His artistic skill won him many honor
26、s.The senator gave Jaime and me a copy of her speech.在第一个句子中，我们可以这样来看：For whom did his artistic skill win many honors? 第二个句子则可以类似地看成：To whom did the senator give a copy of her speech.也就是说明这个谓语动词的动作是指向谁的或者发出这个动作是为谁的。值得注意的一点就是，如果用上 to 或者 for 这些介词的话，介词后面的代词或名词就成为了介词短语的一部分了。而不能再称之为间接宾语了。补语是用来补足主语或宾语的意义的
27、句子成分。补语基本上包括两种，主语补足语和宾语补足语。对主语加以补充说明者为主语补足语，对宾语加以补充说明者为宾语补足语。补语通常是名词、形容词和其代用词。主语补足语系动词之后的补语通常要么是述词主格要么是表语形容词。述语主格指的是同谓语动词主语（句子主语）所指相同的人或物。Adele Rogers St. John is a famous journalist. (journalist 指的就是主语 Adele Rogers St. John)Cats, snakes and owls are natural enemies of mice. (natural enemies of mice
28、 指的就是 cats, snakes and owls)表语形容词指的是修饰谓语动词主语的形容词。The sea is calm. (the adjective calm modifies the subject sea)一般情况下补足语都是位于动词之后。也有个别情况，会把补足语放在谓语动词之前已表示强调。Sweet are the uses of adversity.6正常语序应该是”Te uses of adversity is sweet.” 原句是将补足语 sweet 放在了谓语动词are 之以示强调。定语(attribute)主要就是用来其修饰作用的。一般来说，定语可以是形容词、名词
29、、数词、分词、不定式、介词短语和从句等等。具体情况以后章节具体再说。状语(adverbial) 就是用来修饰句子或谓语动词或者用来告诉我们关于谓语动词或句子的一些东西的词或词组或从句。Danny speaks fluently. (fluently telling us more about the verb speak )Lorna ate breakfast yesterday morning. (yesterday morning telling us when the verbs action occurred)通常状语由副词、介词短语、不定式、分词短语、复合结构及从句充当。我们对时间
30、状语从句、地点状语从句、原因状语从句、让步状语从句、方式状语从句及目的状语从句等从句比较熟悉，我们稍后再讲。大写及标点符号 (Capitalization and Punctuation)大写：1. 每句开始的第一个字母以表明句子的开始。Necessity is the mother of invention.2. 一句话中的专有名词和头衔2.1 the names of individual personsthe first letters of given names (Leland, Mary) and surnames (Proctor, Taylor). In some surnam
31、es another letter besides the first should be capitalized (O Brien, McLean). Always capitalize the abbreviations Sr., Jr., and Esq. when they follow a name: George Hammond, Sr. Martin Luther King, Jr. H.M. Pulham, Esq.2.2 geographical namesa. political units: countries, states, countries, townships,
32、 cities United States of America, South Carolina, Hunterdon County, Alexandria Township, San Diegob. land masses and land forms: continents, islands, peninsula, etc.North America, Long Island, Malay Peninsula, Lookout Pointc. topographical and other land features: mountains, canyons, plains, forests
33、, parks, dams, etc.Rocky Mountain, Bryce Canyon, Plains of Abraham, Gobi Desert, Guiana Forest, Yosemite National Park, Hoover Damd. bodies of water Indian Ocean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, San Francisco Bay, Bering Strait, Hudson River, Boston Harbore. streets and roadsRiver Road, Riverside Drive, King
34、s Highway, Route 22, Fifty-seventh Street2.3 the directions when they are used as the names of definite sections of a country of or the world. Do not capitalize them when they merely indicate direction.the Far West the North heading southwest 2.4 names of organizations, institutions, government bodi
35、es, business firms, brand names of business products, buildings, ships, planes, trains, special events, historical events and periods, items on the calendar, races, religions, bribes and nationalities.7Beijing University, House of Representatives, Department of the Interior, Education Ministry, Sout
36、hern Railway System, General Electric, The Associated Press, Olympic Games, Battle of Gettysburg, Monday, Christmas, Roman Catholic,2.5 Capitalize a title belonging to a particular person if it precedes the persons name. If a title stands along or follows a persons name, capitalize it only if it ref
37、ers to a high official or to someone to whom you wish to show special respect.Professor Webster, General Clark, the professor, professor of philosophy, 注意：president 一词当指国家元首时总会大写，但是当 vice-president 指一个国家副主席时，两个词的开头字母都要大写，即 Vice-President.当头衔与 ex-, -elect, former, or late 连用时，这些词就不用大写了。former Preside
38、nt Nixon.2.6 Capitalize the first word and all important words in the titles of books, magazines, newspapers, articles, historical documents, laws, works of art, movies and television programs.Main Street, Newsweek, Selective Service Act, Bill of Rights3. 代词 I 和感叹词 O 要大写May I go with you?Hear us, O
39、Lord!4. 神，宗教，经书要大写God, Lord, the Bible, Taoism5. 引用句的第一个字母Our teacher said, “Dont miss seeing that movie.”6. 每行诗的第一个字母Punctuation能表明完整的一句话或者说一个完整的主谓结构的标点符号通常有句号、问号、叹号及分号。1. 句号(full stop/period) 1.1 表明一句话的结束(the close of a sentence)。As you leave, turn out the light.1.2 缩写词(abbreviation)或首字母简写 (initia
40、l)U.S.A. stands for the United StatesJan. stands for January2. 问号 (question mark/interrogative mark)2.1 仅用在直接的问句当中；若是陈述句中含有间接问句的话，不可使用Who is going with you?She wants to know who is going with you.2.2 处于礼貌，有时候会在命令或要求的句子末尾使用问号，虽然该句并没有任何提问的意味。这样的问句末尾可接问号也可接句号，当然接问号相对更符合规则。Will you please call me at my
41、home?Will you please call me at my home.2.3 当引语是个问句，问号应该放在引号之内；若引语不是问句的话，问号则放在引号之外。My little sister is going through a stage in which it seem that the only thing she can say is, “Who cares?”8Did the witness use the words, “I saw Marie Ward enter the house”?3. 感叹号(exclamation mark) used in an exclama
42、tion. What a terrific game!3.1 当引语为感叹句时，感叹号应该放在引号之内；若引语不是感叹句的话，那就应该把感叹号置于引号之外。“Block that kick!” the crowd shouted in unison.Dont tell me, “Get ready”!3.2 当感叹词位于句首时，只用逗号即可。Oh, no, dont tell me! （通常用法）Oh! No! Dont tell me! （很少这样用）3.3 祈使句为了要加强语气，也可以用感叹号结尾。Look out! You nearly got hit by that car!4. 逗号
43、 (comma)4.1 用于分开一系列事物中的各项。英语中没有顿号，所以用逗号来分开各项。Will you spend your vacation in the mountains, on the lake, or at the seashore?a. 不要将逗号放在一系列事物之前或之后。The coach expects, obedience, hard work, and quick thinking, from every person on the team. (incorrect)The coach expects obedience, hard work, and quick th
44、inking from every person on the team. (correct)b. 当用 and, or 或者 nor 连接一系列事物中的最后两项时，连词前的逗号通常会省略。c. 当列举各项之间均有 and, or 或者 nor 连接时，就不要用逗号了。Mother and Father and Jane and I all flew.4.2 用逗号分开修饰同一名词的多个形容词。She is a young, dynamic, creative woman.4.3 当用 and, but, or, nor, for, yet 等次连接独立的分句时，这些连词前要使用逗号。Mari
45、sol was born in France, but she grew up in South America.Mr. Ballin is a popular teacher, for he is known to be fair, and he has a sense of humor.注意：这一规则仅用于并列句。当并列主语或并列谓语时，不能用。I ordered four pairs of mittens but received only three pairs. （并列谓语）What we hop for and what we get are usually tow quite d
46、ifferent things. （并列主语）4.4.非限制性从句或含有非必要性的分词短语句子中，在从句或短语前后常用逗号。Margraret Mead, who is a disciple of Ruth Benedict, is a noted anthropologist.Rosemary Casals, known to many Americans, plays an excellent tennis game.4.5 逗号用在某些引入成分之后a. 当有些句子是用 well，yes, no, why 等开头时，这些词后要用逗号。Why, I cant believe it!No, i
47、ts impossible to leave now.b. 用于引入性的分词短语之后。9Struck by lightening, the ancient oak tree crashed to the ground.c. 用于引入性的状语从句之后Because that magazine often contains clever satires and parodies, we sometimes read it in English class.4.6 用于插入语中，如果插入成分不在句首或句末的话，通常需要在插入成分前后分别加逗号。a. 同位语或同位语短语常用逗号隔开。Alice, th
48、e same Alice we saw yesterday, is not at school today.注意：如果同位语跟其修饰的中心词关系比较紧密的话，就没必要用逗号了。Her cousin Arleen my friend Borisb. 当直接使用称呼语时，应该使用逗号。Helen, did you hear what I said?I know, Peter, that you will do well.c. 用逗号隔开插入的单词、短语或从句As a matter of fact, I was just going to call you.However, we do not di
49、sagree too much./We do not, however, disagree too much./We do not disagree too much, however.4.7 逗号用于某些常规的情形下。a. 逗号用来分开日期和地址中的各项。The party was held on Wednesday, June 17, 2014.His new address in No. 634, Xuefu Road, Dagang, Binhai New Area, Tianjin.b. 在书信的开头称呼语或结尾落款是，会用逗号。Dear Frank, Sincerely yours, 注意：商业信函中，常用冒号， 如：Dear Sir:5. 分号(semicolon)分号常被看作是较弱的句号或较强的逗号，常用来表明两个独立分句之间的紧密关系。5.1 分号用于两个或多个关系密切的独立分句，这些分句之间没有用 and, but, for, or, not, yet 等连接。The car stopped; Joe got in. = The car stopped and Joe got in.5.2 分号用来分隔有下列副词所连接的独立分句，如：accordingly，also,
