1、CANADA,Canada is a country in North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean. It is the worlds second largest country by total area. Canadas common border with the United States to the south and northwest is the longe
2、st in the world.,In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonom
3、y was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster of 1931 and culminated in the Canada Act of 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the British parliament.,Provinces and territories,Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three territories. In turn, these may be grouped
4、into regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (the latter made up of the three territories: Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut).,加拿大十省三地区分别为： 阿尔伯塔省（英语、法语：Alberta，成立年份：1905年） 不列颠哥伦比亚省（英语：British Columbia，法语：Colombie-Britannique，加入年份：1858年） 马尼托巴省（英语、法语：Manit
5、oba，加入年份为1870年） 纽芬兰与拉布拉多省（英语：Newfoundland and Labrador，法语：Terre-Neuve-et-Labrador，加入年份：1949年） 新不伦瑞克省（英语：New Brunswick，法语：Nouveau-Brunswick，加入年份：1867年） 西北领地（英语：Northwest Territories，法语：Territoires du Nord-Ouest，加入年份：1870年） 新斯科舍省（英语：Nova Scotia，法语：Nouvelle-cosse，加入年份：1867年） 努纳武特地区（英语、法语：Nunavut，于1999年
6、从西北地区分割出来） 安大略省（英语、法语：Ontario，加入年份：1867年） 爱德华王子省（英语：Prince Edward Island，法语：le-du-Prince-douard，加入年份：1873年） 魁北克省（法语：Qubec，英语：Quebec，加入年份为1867年） 萨斯喀彻温省（英语、法语：Saskatchewan，成立年份：1905年） 育空地区（英语、法语：Yukon，加入年份：1898年）,Provinces have more autonomy than territories. (such as health care, education, and welfa
7、re) and together collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas;Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure that r
8、easonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.,Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary according to the location. Winters can be harsh in many regions of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, wh
9、ich experience a continental climate.,In noncoastal regions, snow can cover the ground almost six months of the year (more in the north). Coastal British Columbia enjoys a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter.,People,Aboriginal peoples in Canada include the First Nations Inuit, and Mtis.
10、The Mtis a culture of mixed blood originated in the mid-17th century when First Nation and Inuit married European settlers. The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during the early periods. The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during the early periods,T
11、he land that is now Canada was inhabited for millennia by various groups of Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French expeditions explored, and later settled, along the Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Y
12、ears War.,European colonization,New France and Canada under British Imperial control. The Royal Proclamation (1763) carved the Province of Quebec out of New France . To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province into French-speaking Lower Ca
13、nada (later the province of Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected Legislative Assembly.,The desire for responsible government resulted in the aborted Rebellions of 1837. The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assim
14、ilation of French Canadians into British culture. The Act of Union 1840 merged The Canada into a united Province of Canada. Responsible government was established for all British North American provinces by 1849.,Government and politics,Canada has strong democratic traditions upheld through a parlia
15、mentary government within the construct of constitutional monarchy, the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches and its authority stemming from the Canadian populace. The sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II, who also serves as head of state of 15 othe
16、r Commonwealth countries and resides predominantly in the United Kingdom. As such, the Queens representative, the Governor General of Canada (presently Michalle Jean), carries out most of the royal duties in Canada.,The direct participation of the royal and vice-royal figures in any of these areas o
17、f governance is limited, though; in practice, their use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and headed by the Prime Minister of Canada, the head of government.To ensure the stability of government, the
18、governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons and the prime minister chooses the Cabinet.,The Prime Ministers Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful inst
19、itutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of crown corporations and government agencies. The leader of th
20、e party with the second-most seats usually becomes the Leader of Her Majestys Loyal Oppositionand is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.,Party,Each Member of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple majority in an electoral district or
21、 riding. General elections must be called by the governor general, on the advice of the prime minister, within four years of the previous election, or may be triggered by the government losing a confidence vote in the House Members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serv
22、e until age 75.,Four parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in the 2008 elections: the Conservative Party of Canada (governing party), the Liberal Party of Canada (the Official Opposition), the New Democratic Party (NDP), and the Bloc Qubcois. The list of historical parties wi
23、th elected representation is substantial.,Foreign relations,Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full relations with Cuba and declining to officially participate in the Iraq War. Canada also maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to ot
24、her former British and French colonies through Canadas membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Francophonie .,Economy,Canada is one of the worlds wealthiest nations, with a high per-capita income, and it is a member of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and t
25、he G8. It is one of the worlds top ten trading nations. Canada is a mixed market, ranking above the U.S. on the Heritage Foundations index of economic freedom and higher than most western European nations. The largest foreign importers of Canadian goods are the United States, the United Kingdom, and
26、 Japan.,In the past century, the growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to a more industrial and urban one. Like other First World nations, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three q
27、uarters of Canadians. Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its primary sector, in which the logging and petroleum industries are two of the most important.,Economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II.,NAFTA Initialing Ceremon
28、y, October 1992,Canadas official national sports are hockey in the winter and lacrosse in the summer. Hockey is a national pastime and the most popular spectator sport in the country.,Ottawa,Ottawa is the capital of Canada the city lies on the southern banks of the Ottawa River, a major waterway for
29、ming the local boundary between the provinces of Ontario and Quebec.,Transitional Page,Toronto,Toronto is the largest city in Canada and the provincial capital of Ontario. It is located in Southern Ontario on the northwestern shore of Lake Ontario. With over 2.5 million residents, it is the fifth mo
30、st populous municipality in North America.,As Canadas economic capital, Toronto is considered an alpha world city by the Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) study group and is one of the top financial centres in the world. Torontos leading economic sectors include finance, business services, telec
31、ommunications, aerospace, transportation, media, arts, film, television production, publishing, software production, medical research, education, tourism and sports industries.,Niagara Falls,Australia,Australia ,officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere compri
32、sing the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific,For at least 40,000 years before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians . After sporadic visits by fishermen from the
33、immediate north and discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australias eastern half was claimed by Britain in 1770 and initially settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales, founded on 26 January 1788.,On 1 January 1901, the six colonies became a federation and the Commonweal
34、th of Australia was formed. Since Federation, Australia has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system and is a Commonwealth realm. The population is 22 million, with approximately 60% concentrated in and around the mainland state capitals of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adela
35、ide.,Geography,The worlds smallest continent and sixth largest country by total area, Australiaowing to its size and isolationis often dubbed the island continent and variably considered the worlds largest island.,Climate,History,In 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast of Australi
36、a, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. Cooks discoveries prepared the way for establishment of a new penal colony.,On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, consultation, and voting. The Commonwealth of Australia was established
37、and it became a dominion of the British Empire in 1907. The Federal Capital Territory (later renamed the Australian Capital Territory) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra. Britains Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links b
38、etween Australia and the UK.,After World War II, Australia encouraged immigration from Europe. Since the 1970s and following the abolition of the White Australia policy, immigration from Asia and elsewhere was also promoted. As a result, Australias demography, culture, and self-image were transforme
39、d.,Final constitutional ties between Australia and the UK were severed with the passing of the Australia Act 1986, ending any British role in the government of the Australian States, and closing the option of judicial appeals to the Privy Council in London.,Politics,Australia is a constitutional mon
40、archy with a federal division of powers. It uses a parliamentary system of government with Queen Elizabeth II at its apex as the Queen of Australia, a role that is distinct from her position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms.,As the Queen resides in the United Kingdom, the executive powers
41、 vested in her by the Constitution are normally exercised by her viceroys in Australia (the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level), who by convention act on the advice of her Ministers. The federal government is separated into three branches:,The legislature :
42、 the bicameral Parliament ,comprising the Queen ,the Senate ,and the House of Representative;,Parliament House,The executive : the Federal Executive Council ,in practice the Governor-General as advised by the Prime Minister of State.,The judiciary: the High Court of Australia and other federal court
43、s ,whose judges are appointed by the Governor-General on advice of the Council.,States and territories,Australia has six statesNew South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australiaand two major mainland territoriesthe Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Te
44、rritory (ACT).,Foreign relations,Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the US, under the ANZUS treaty. Over recent decades, Australias foreign relations have been driven by a close association with the United States through the ANZUS pact.,by a desire to develop relationships with
45、 Asia and the Pacific, particularly through ASEAN( Association of Southeast Asian Nations ) and the Pacific Islands Forum. In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seat at the East Asia Summit following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia. Australia is a member of th
46、e Commonwealth of Nations, in which the Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings provide the main forum for cooperation,Economy,Australia has a free-market economy with high GDP per capita and low rate of poverty. Ranked third in the Index of Economic Freedom (2010), Australia is the worlds thirtee
47、nth largest economy and has the eleventh highest per capita GDP.An emphasis on exporting commodities rather than manufactured goods has underpinned a significant increase in Australias terms of trade since the start of the century, due to rising commodity prices.,Canberra,Canberra is the capital cit
48、y of Australia. With a population of over 345,000, it is Australias largest inland city and the eighth-largest city overall. The city is located at the northern end of the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). .,The site of Canberra was selected for the location of the nations capital in 1908 As the s
49、eat of the government of Australia, Canberra is the site of Parliament House, the High Court and numerous government departments and agencies.,Sydney,Sydney is the largest and most populous city in Australia and the state capital of New South Wales. Sydney is located on Australias south-east coast o
50、f the Tasman Sea. With an approximate population of 4.5 million in the Sydney metropolitan area the city is the largest in Oceania.,Sydney has a reputation as an international centre for commerce, arts, fashion, culture, entertainment, music, education and tourism. Sydney has hosted major international sporting events, including the 1938 British Empire Games, the 2000 Summer Olympics, and the final match of the 2003 Rugby World Cup.,
