1、Chapter 2 Sentence Skills,Instructor: Carolyn Young,Outline,2.1 Four basic sentence types 2.2 Coordination, subordination and emphasis 2.3 Common grammatical errors 2.4 Sentence Styles,2.1 The Four Basic Sentence Types,The fundamental unit of a composition is the sentence. a. The simple sentence b.
2、The compound sentence c. The complex sentence d. The compound-complex sentence,a. The simple sentence,It includes a subject and verb. E.g. Consumers shop. E.g. Both female consumers and their husbands shop unwisely. two subjects,b. The compound sentence(并列句）,It consists of at least two simple clause
3、s and no subordinate clauses(从属句). E.g. Produces manufacture, and consumers shop. E.g. Produces manufacture, market sell, and consumers shop. E.g. Consumers shop in different ways, so producers manufacture with different target groups in mind.,c. The complex sentence (复杂句）,It consists of a independe
4、nt clause and one or more dependent clauses. E.g. Because the day was cloudy, they put off the picnic. we saw that you were tired. I like the people who live next door. Note: The information expressed in the dependent clause is subordinate to (从属于)the more important independent clause. If you want t
5、o emphasize sth, you put it in the main clause.,d. The compound-complex sentence（并列复杂句）,It consists of two or more independent clauses and one more dependent clauses. E.g. We though that we could go, but we decided not to.,Why do the four sentence types matter?,They are about different ways of organ
6、izing and prioritizing information. Simple sentence give one clear idea at a time. Compound sentences means several ideas go together and are equal in some way. Complex sentences indicate relationship among ideas：“Before I did X, I did Y, although I didnt want to. ”,Activity,Write down a simple sent
7、ence and expand it to a compound sentence, a complex sentence and a compound-complex sentence.,2.2 Coordination (并列) and Emphasis(强调）,Coordination uses grammatically same constructions(结构) to link ideas. Coordinating conjunctions : and, but, or. E.g. Homegrown corn(玉米) is very sweet, and it is very
8、difficult to grow. Homegrown corn(玉米) is very sweet, but it is very difficult to grow. This version gets more precise and achieves more emphasis than the and version.,Reversing(调换) the order of coordinate clauses for emphasis,In both the and and but examples, the second clause tends to be stressed.
9、The end is usually a position of emphasis.E.g. Homegrown corn(玉米) is very sweet, but it is very difficult to grow. Homegrown corn(玉米) is very difficult to grow, but it is very sweet. When you use coordination, you give the ideas equal weight.,Activity,Rearrange the parts of the following coordinate
10、sentence. Construct three versions and discuss how meaning changes in each version. E.g. I asked her to marry me, two years ago, in a shop on 25th Street, late in the fall.,2.2 Subordination (从属) and emphasis(强调),Subordination: the main clause(主句) and the subordinate clause (从属句). It lets readers se
11、e which main ideas you consider important. The main clause: the more important information The subordinate claques: the less important information E.g. If you study hard, you will continue to do well. subordinating conjunctions: if, as, although, after, because, rather than, since, and while.,Revers
12、ing(调换) the main and subordinating clause,The emphasis is always on the main clause, regardless of the clause order. a. If you study hard, you will continue to do well. b. You will continue to do well, if you study hard.However, the principle of end-position emphasis still applies. A complex sentenc
13、e ending with a subordinate clause still put greater emphasis on the meaning of the subordinate clause just because it is at the end.,Activity,Rewrite the following sentence, changing the order of clauses by using subordination or coordination as you wish. We recommend that you make the sentence end
14、 with the word friendly. E.g. Members came to speak at the meeting, and they were friendly, but they were met with hostility(敌意).,Periodic sentence and emphasis,Periodic sentence(圆周句): the main clause in a periodic sentence builds to a climax (顶点) that is not completed until the end. Often, a piece
15、of the main clause (such as the subject) is located early in the sentence. The way that beverage(饮料) companies market health “no preservatives(防腐剂),” “No artificial colors(人工色素),” “all natural” is often, because the product also contains a high percentage of sugar, misleading.,Parallelism (排比）,It is
16、 a form of symmetry(对称): it involves placing sentence elements into the same grammatical form. E.g. We will come when we are ready and when we choose. Talent, Mr. Lang has; capital, Mr. Lang hasnt.,Advantages of parallelism,Impressive and pleasing to hearEconomical: using one element of a sentence t
17、o serve 3 or 4 others.,Use parallelism (排比）,Non-parallel (not balanced)E.g. Grandmother likes to read mystery novels, to do needlepoint(刺绣), and browsing the Internet on her home computer. Parallel (balanced)Grandmother likes to read mystery novels, to do needlepoint(刺绣), and to browse the Internet
18、on her home computer.,Activity,2. Many people share the same three intense fears: being in high places, working with numbers, and speeches. (P. 102) 3. To decide on a career, students should think closely about their interests, hobbies, and what they are skilled at. (P. 102) 8. Because the dying wom
19、an was dignified(庄重的)and with courage, she won everyones respect. (P. 103) 4. The keys to improving grades are to take effective notes in class, to plan study time, and preparing carefully for exams. (P.123) 5. Qualities that I look for in friends are a sense of humor, being kind, and dependability.
20、 (P.123),3. Common grammatical errors,3. 1 Major errors with verbs 3.2 Major errors with nouns 3.3 Major errors with pronouns 3. 4 Major errors with adverbs and adjectives Punctuation (标点符号),3.1 Major errors with verbs,a. Faulty agreement (主谓不一致) Make your verb agree in number with its subject; a si
21、ngular(单数的)subject takes a singular verb, and a plural (复数的) subject takes a plural verb. Incorrect: The actions of the new official hasnt been consistent with his campaign(竞选) promises. Correct: The actions of the new official havent been consistent with his campaign(竞选) promises. Incorrect: Much e
22、ffort are wasted. Correct: Much effort is wasted.,1. A collective noun(集合名词) generally takes a singular verb. Incorrect: The army of the new nation want shoes and bullets(子弹). Correct: The army of the new nation wants shoes and bullets(子弹). Incorrect: In the morning, the class often dance to the mus
23、ic. Correct: In the morning, the class often dances to the music.,2. With a relative pronoun关系代词 (that, which, and who) used as a subject: the verb agrees with its antecedent(先行词), the word being described. Incorrect: The boss rejected(拒绝接受)a shipment of shirts, which was torn. Correct: The boss rej
24、ected a shipment of shirts, which were torn.,3. With each, everybody, everyone, and neither as the subject, use a singular verb. Incorrect: Each of the children think Mom and Dad are automatic teller machine. Correct: Each of the children thinks Mom and Dad are automatic teller machine. Incorrect: N
25、either have a coin left by the second of the month. Correct: Neither has a coin left by the second of the month.,4. With eitheror and neither .nor, the verb agrees with the nearer item. Incorrect: Neither dogs nor rain keep the mail carrier from delivering bills. Correct: Neither dogs nor rain keeps
26、 the mail carrier from delivering bills. Incorrect: Either Betty or her neighbors is hosting a come-as-you-are breakfast. Correct: Either Betty or her neighbors are hosting a come-as-you-are breakfast.,5. With plural nouns intervening(介于)between subject and verb, the verb still agrees with the subje
27、ct. Incorrect: The jungle, with its wild animals and biting insects, make John stop his adventure. Correct: The jungle, with its wild animals and biting insects, makes John stop his adventure. Incorrect: My wife, more than anyone else in the family, are anxious to go there again. Correct: My wife, m
28、ore than anyone else in the family, is anxious to go there again.,6. Compound subjects, that is, two subjects separated by a joining word such as and, generally take a plural verb. Clark and Lucy are good people.,7. With nouns plural(复数的) in form but singular(单数的) in meaning, a singular verb is usua
29、lly correct. Examples: News travels slowly if it comes through the post office. Politics is often the rich persons hobby. Mathematics(数学) is the study of numbers.,8.With the words data and media as the subject, a plural verb is usually correct in formal writing (despite its usage in colloquial setti
30、ng). E.g. The data were wrong. E.g. The media often influence public opinion polls(民意调查).,9. cleft sentence (分裂句) It is I who _ to blame. (formal) It is me who _to blame. (informal),Activity,The following sentences contain subject-verb agreement errors. Correct the problems by changing the verbs. 1.
31、 A recent report on Cuban(古巴的)land crabs (蟹)show that they can run faster than horses. 2. The team in our department are considering quitting from this years contest. 3. Clarity(清楚,明确)in speech and writing are essential in the business world today. 4. Bananas, rich in vitamins and low in fat, is rat
32、ed the most popular fruit in America.,Answer,1. A recent report on Cuban(古巴的)land crabs (蟹)shows that they can run faster than horses. 2. The team in our department is considering quitting from this years contest. 3. Clarity(清楚,明确)in speech and writing is essential in the business world today. 4. Ba
33、nanas, rich in vitamins and low in fat, are rated the most popular fruit in America.,b. Subjunctive (虚拟语气),When you make a wish or a statement that is contrary to fact(与事实相反), use the subjunctive verb form “were.” Incorrect: I wish I was queen so I could punish those men who smoke. Correct: I wish I
34、 were queen so I could punish those men who smoke. Incorrect: He spoke to me as if I was deaf. Correct: He spoke to me as if I were deaf.,Activity,Fill in the following blanks. 1. If I _you, I shouldnt do it. 2. He behaves as though he _better than us. 3. She treats me as if I _a stranger. 4. Someti
35、mes I wish I _white/not gay.,When you make a wish or a statement that is contrary to fact(与事实相反), you can also use the simple past forms of the verb. 1. I would rather Im sure he is keeping something back. Id rather he told me the truth. She will get home at dinner time, but I would rather she got h
36、ome a little earlier. She got drunk last night. Id rather she hadnt drunk so much. He didnt attend the meeting. Id rather he had been present.,3. I wish,Use wish +past tense to refer to present wishes. 1. I live with my parents.I wish I didnt live with my parents.I wish I had my own apartment. 2. My
37、 parents wont stop worrying about me. I wish they would stop worrying about me. 3. Life is difficult. I wish it were easier. I wish it werent so difficult.,Activity,Think of five things you wish you could change. Then discuss with your partner. A: What do you wish you could change? B: Well, Im not i
38、n very good shape. I wish I were more fit. My school, my family, my skills, my appearance, my bedroom,2. If only,Examples: If only I had enough money with me. If only I could swim. If only he had listened my advice.,Unreal conditional sentence with If clauses,Unreal conditional sentence describe ima
39、ginary situations. Simple past forms consequences in the present(与现在事实相反) ; simple past/were + would/could +动原 had+ past participle consequences in the past(与过去事实相反) had+ed分词+ would(could,might) have +ed If I found $75,000, I would/could buy lots of nice clothes and jewelry. If I knew her address, I
40、 would write to her. If you hadnt taken those photos, you wouldnt have been arrested(逮捕). If you had done your homework, you wouldnt have been punished by your teacher.,Activity,1. He talks as if he _(do) all the work himself, but in fact Tom and I did most of it. 2. I wish I _(know) whats wrong wit
41、h my car. 3. He treats us as if we _(be) all idiots. 4. If he _(not miss)the morning train, he _(not late) for the meeting. 5. If he _(bring) a map with him, he wouldnt have got lost. 6. If I _(not have) another key, I _(ask) a neighbor for help. 7. If I couldnt afford to fix it, I _(have to) walk e
42、verywhere. 8. If we had known your phone number, we _ (call) you.,Answer,1. He talks as if he did all the work himself, but in fact Tom and I did most of it. 2. I wish I knew whats wrong with my car. 3. He treats us as if we were all idiots. 4. If he hadnt missed the morning train, he would not have
43、 been late for the meeting. 5. If he had brought a map with him, he wouldnt have got lost. 6. If I didnt have another key, I would ask a neighbor for help. 7. If I couldnt afford to fix it, I would have to walk everywhere.,c. Tense shift,In most cases, the first verb in a sentence establishes the te
44、nse of any later verb. Keep your verbs within the same time frame to avoid confusing your readers. Incorrect: Big Joe saw the police car coming up behind, so he turns into the next street. Correct: Big Joe saw the police car coming up behind, so he turned into the next street. Incorrect: Jane was a
45、popular person in her office, and she likes to tell jokes. Correct: Jane is a popular person in her office, and she likes to tell jokes.,d. Double negatives (双重否定),1. Rewrite sentences that use two negatives to communicate a single negative idea. Incorrect: He dont need no fancy car to impress her.
46、Correct: He doesnt need a fancy car to impress her. Incorrect: They couldnt find no record of my purchase. Correct: They could find no record of my purchase.They couldnt find any record of my purchase.,2. Dont use a negative verb and negative adverb (hardly, scarcely)together.Incorrect: I cant hardl
47、y hear you. Correct: I can hardly hear you.,f. Irregular verbs,Most verbs form their past tense by adding “ed” (ask/asked). However, there are irregular verbs. arise awake swear bite ride cost draw eat feed hide lead wear,arise arose arisen awake awoke awoken swear swore sworn bite bit bitten ride r
48、ode ridden cost cost cost draw drew drawn eat ate eaten feed fed fed hide hid hidden lead led led wear wore worn,Activity,Correct the following sentences that contain grammatical mistakes. 1. He couldnt hardly wait to hear her singing that song. 2. I seen what she was hiding behind her back. 3. He c
49、ome around here yesterday asking questions, but were use to that. 4. Jack dont like to be awakened until noon. 5. The kids done good work all day.,Answer,1. He couldnt wait to hear her singing that song. 2. I saw what she was hiding behind her back. 3. He came around here yesterday asking questions, but we were used to that. 4. Jack doesnt like to be awakened until noon. 5. The kids have done good work all day.,
