1、前几课翻译链接：http:/ 10 ThermodynamicsThermodynamics is the physics of energy, heat, work, entropy and the spontaneity of processes. Thermodynamics is closely related to statistical mechanics from which many thermodynamic relationships can be derived. 热力学是物理能量，热，工作过程，熵和自发性。热力学是密切相关的统计力学，热力学关系可以推导出。While d
2、ealing with processes in which systems exchange matter or energy, classical thermodynamics is not concerned with the rate at which such processes take place, termed kinetics. For this reason, the use of the term “thermodynamics” usually refers to equilibrium thermodynamics. In this connection, a cen
3、tral concept in thermodynamics is that of quasistatic processes, which are idealized, “infinitely slow” processes. Time-dependent thermodynamic processes are studied by non-equilibrium thermodynamics.在处理中，系统交换物质或能量的过程，经典热力学不关心这些过程发生的速率，称为动力学。为此，对“热力学”通常指的是平衡热力学的使用。在这方面，热力学中一个重要的概念是，准静态过程，是理想化的，“无限慢”
4、的过程。时间依赖性的热力学过程的非平衡热力学研究。1 Applications of Thermodynamics1.热力学应用There are two major applications of thermodynamics, both of which are important to chemical engineers:有两个主要应用热力学，这两者都是化学工程师的重要：(1) The calculation of heat and work effects associated with process as well as the calculation of the maximu
5、m work obtainable from a process or the minimum work required to drive a process.（1）的热量和工作的影响与过程以及从一个过程或最小工作需要驱动的过程中获得的最大工作的计算。(2) The establishment of relationships among the variables describing systems at equilibrum.2）描述系统在平衡的变量之间的关系的建立。The first application is suggested by the name thermodynamic
6、s, which implies heat in motion. Most of these calculations can be made by the direct implementation of the first and second laws.Examples are calculating the work of compressing a gas, performing an energy balance on an entire process or a process unit, determining the minimum work of separating a
7、mixture of ethanol and water, or evaluating the efficiency of an ammonia synthesis plant.第一个应用是由名称热力学的建议，这意味着热运动。大多数这些计算可以由第一和第二定律直接执行。实例计算压缩气体的工作，执行对整个过程或过程单元的能量平衡，确定分离乙醇和水的混合物的最小工作，或评估一个合成氨厂的效率。The application of thermodynamics to a particular system results in the definition of useful properties
8、and the establishment of a network of relationships among the properties and other variables such as pressure, temperature, volume, and mol fraction. Actually, application 1 would not be possible unless a means existed for evaluating the necessary thermodynamics property changes required in implemen
9、ting the first and second laws. The property changes are calculated from experimentally determined data via the established network of relationships. Additionally, the network of relationships among the variables of a system allows the calculation of values of variables which are either unknown or d
10、ifficult to determine experimentally from variables which are either available or easier to measure. For example, the heat of vaporizing a liquid can be calculated from measurements of the vapor pressure at several temperatures and the densities of the liquid and vapor phase at several temperatures,
11、 and the maximum conversion obtainable in a chemical reaction at any temperature can be calculated from calorimetric measurements performed on the individual substances participating in the reaction.热力学的有用的特性，和其他变量，如压力，温度，体积性质之间的关系，建立一个网络的定义，一个特定的系统中，与摩尔分数。实际上，应用 1 将不可能存在除非手段评估必要的热力学性质的变化在执行第一和第二定律。
12、属性的变化计算从实验确定的数据通过网络关系的建立。此外，一个系统的变量之间的关系的网络允许是未知的或难以确定实验中是可用的或容易衡量的变量的变量值的计算。例如，蒸发液体可从蒸汽压力测量在不同温度下的液体和蒸气相的密度在几个温度下计算出的热，在任何温度下化学反应得到最大的转换可以从热测量对个体物质参与的反应进行了计算。2 The nature of Thermodynamics2 热力学性质A. Thermodynamics is a science that includes the study of energy transformations and of the relationship
13、s among the physical properties of substances that are affected by these transformations.A.热力学是一门科学，包括研究的能量转换和之间的关系，通过这些变革影响物质的物理性质之间的。1. Definition is broad and vague.1 定义是广泛的，模糊的。2. Mechanical engineers typically focus on power and refrigeration devices such as steam power plants, fuel cells, nucl
14、ear reactors, etc.2 机械工程师通常集中在发电和制冷设备如蒸汽发电厂，燃料电池，核反应堆等。3. Chemical engineers typically focus on phase equilibria and chemical reactions and the associated properties.3 化学工程师通常集中在相平衡和化学反应和相关的性能。4. Element which really sets thermodynamics apart from other sciences is the study of energy transformation
15、s through heat and work.4 元素，真正使热力学与其他科学是通过热与功转换能量的研究。B. Thermodynamic properties can be studied either by studying macroscopic or microscopic behavior of matter.B.热力学性质进行研究无论是通过研究宏观或微观物质的行为。1. Classical thermodynamics treats matter as a continuum and studies the macroscopic behavior of matter1 经典热力
16、学治疗物质作为一个连续体，研究物质的宏观行为 2. Statistical thermodynamics studies the statistical behavior of large groups of individual particles. It postulates that observed physical property behavior (e.g., T, p, H, ) is equal to the appropriate statistical average of a large number of particles.2 统计热力学研究的大组的单个粒子的统计行
17、为。它假设，观察到的物理属性的行为（例如，T，P，H， ）等于相应的统计平均的大量粒子。C. Thermodynamics is based upon experimental observation.C.热力学是基于实验观察。1. Conclusions of observations have been cast as postulates or laws.1 已被称为假设或法律结论的观察。2. Our study of thermodynamics will consider five laws or postulates; two dealing with energy transfo
18、rmation and three dealing with properties.2 我们的热力学研究会考虑五法律或假设；两个处理的能量转换和三处理性能。Energy Transformation Laws:能量转化规律：a. First Law of Thermodynamics-Energy is conserved. (You cant win!)A.热力学第一定律能量守恒。（你不可能赢的！）b. Second Law of Thermodynamics-Takes many forms. In essence it says that energy has different “qu
19、ality” and processes only spontaneously proceed in one direction. It isnt possible to convert all of the energy of a system into work. B.热力学第二定律以多种形式。从本质上说，能有不同的“质量”，只在一个方向自发进行的过程。你不可能将所有的精力投入到工作的系统。Property Relationship Laws:c. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics-When each of two systems is in thermal equ
20、ilibrium with a third system, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.C.热力学第零定律当两个系统都是在热平衡三分之一系统，他们也彼此处于热平衡状态。d. Third Law of Thermodynamics-The “entropy” of a perfect crystal is zero at absolute zero temperature.D.热力学第三定律“熵 ”的一个完美的晶体是零在绝对零度的温度下。e. State Postulate-The state of a simple,
21、 single phase thermodynamic system is completely specified by two independently variable, intensive properties.E 状态的假设一个简单的状态，单相的热力学系统完全由两个独立的变量指定的，密集的性质。D. Energy Conversion and Efficiency能量转换效率1.A primary concern in thermodynamics is energy conversion and a measure of energy conversion success is
22、called the efficiency. For energy consuming or producing devices it is called the thermal efficiency:1 热力学中的一个主要关注的是能源转换和衡量成功的被称为能量转换效率。对能源的消耗及生产设备，它被称为热效率：3 Definitions and Thermodynamic Vocabulary3 定义和热力学的词汇A. Thermodynamic SystemA.热力系统1. Definition-A three dimensional region of space bounded by a
23、rbitrary surfaces (which may be real or imaginary and may change size or shape) which delineate the portion of the universe we are interested in.1 定义一三维空间区域范围内的任意曲面（这可能是真实的或想象的，可能会改变大小或形状），勾画出我们感兴趣的是宇宙的一部分。a. Closed System is a system that is closed with respect to the flow of matter, e.g., fixed, c
24、losed volume. A closed system is defined by a fixed quantity of mass.封闭的系统是一个系统，是相对于物质流，例如，固定的闭合，闭合容积。一个封闭的系统是由一个固定数量的质量定义。b. Open System is a system that is open with respect to the flow of matter such as a compressor. The system is defined by an imaginary volume surrounding the region of interest.
25、 The surface of this volume is called the control or sigma (s ) surface. Mass, heat, work and momentum can flow across the control surface.打开系统是一个系统，是相对于物质如压缩机流量开放。该系统是由周围感兴趣区域的一个假想的体积定义。本卷的表面被称为控制或 （的）表面。质量，动量和热量，工作可以流过控制面。c. Isolated System is a system that is not influenced in any way by the part
26、 of space which is external to the system boundaries. No heat, work, mass or momentum can cross the boundary of an isolated system. (N, V, U) are fixed and constant in a closed system.C.孤立系统是一个系统，不影响任何方式的空间是系统边界外的部分。没有热，质量和动量的工作，可以跨一个孤立的系统边界。（N ，V ，U）是固定的，在一个封闭的系统常数。d. Simple System is a system that
27、 does not contain any internal adiabatic, rigid and impermeable boundaries and is not acted upon by external forces.D.简单的系统是一个系统，不包含任何内部绝热，刚性和不透水边界并不是由外力驱动。e. Composite System is a system that is composed of two or more simple systems.E.复合系统是一个系统，由两个或两个以上的简单系统。B. PropertyB.属性1. Definition-A characte
28、ristic of a system.1 定义一个系统的一个特性。a. Primitive Property is a property that can in principle be specified by describing an operation or test to which the system is subjected. Examples include mechanical measurements (e.g., pressure, volume, and thermometric temperature T) and heat capacity.原始的财产是财产，原则
29、上可以在指定的描述一个操作或测试该系统受到。例子包括机械测量（例如，压力，体积和温度，温度 T）和热容量。b. Derived Property is a property that is mathematically defined in terms of primitive properties.B.派生属性，是数学中的原始定义属性的属性。c. Intensive Property is a property that is independent of the extent of or mass of the system. Examples are T, P, density, (x)
30、, etc.C.密集的属性是独立的程度，或系统的质量属性。的例子是 T，P，密度，（x），等。d. Extensive Property is a property whose value for the system is dependent upon the mass or extent of the system. Examples are the enthalpy, internal energy, volume, etc.D.广泛性是系统的值是依赖于系统的质量或程度的财产的例子是内部的能量，焓，体积，等。e. Specific Property is an extensive pro
31、perty per unit mass. Specific properties are intensive.E.特性是一个广泛的每单位质量特性。具体性能密集型。f. State Property is a property that only depends on the thermodynamic state of the system, not the path taken to get to that state.F.国家财产是财产，仅取决于系统的热力学状态，而不是采取的路径到达这一状态。C. State of a SystemC.系统状态1. Thermodynamic State-
32、The condition of the system as characterized by the values of its properties.1 热力学状态系统的状况为特征的自身属性的值。2. Stable Equilibrium State is a state in which the system is not capable of finite spontaneous change to another state without a finite change in the state of the surroundings.2 稳定平衡状态是不能够有限自然变化到另一种状
33、态是系统的状态不在周围的区域有限的改变。a. Many types of equilibrium must be fulfilled - thermal, mechanical, phase (material) and chemical.许多类型的平衡必须满足热，机械，化学和相位（材料）。3. State Postulate: The equilibrium state of a simple closed system can be completely characterized by two independently variable properties and the masse
34、s of the species contained within the system.3 状态公理：一个简单的封闭系统的平衡状态可以完全由两个独立变量的属性和包含在系统中的物种的群众。D. Thermodynamic ProcessD.热力过程1. Definition-A transformation from one equilibrium state to another.1 定义一个从一个平衡状态转换到另一个。a. Quasi-static Process is a process where every intermediate state is a stable equilib
35、rium state.准静态过程是一个过程，每一个中间状态，是一种稳定的平衡状态。b. Reversible Process is one in which a second process could be performed so that the system and surroundings can be restored to their initial states with no change in the system or surroundings.B.可逆过程是一种第二过程可以进行这样的体制环境可以恢复到其初始状态与系统或环境没有变化。1) Reversible proce
36、sses are quasi-static but quasi-static processes are not necessarily reversible.1）可逆过程是准静态的，准静态过程并不一定是可逆的。2) A quasi-static process in a simple system is also reversible.2）在一个简单的系统的准静态过程是可逆的。3) Some factors which render processes irreversible are friction, unrestrained expansion of gasses, heat tran
37、sfer through a finite temperature difference, mixing, chemical reaction, etc.3）的一些因素，使过程的不可逆的摩擦，无限膨胀的气体，通过传热有限的温度差异，混合，化学反应，等。E. Thermodynamic PathE.热力学路径1. The specification of a series of states through which a system passes in a process.1 规范的一系列状态通过该系统通过一个过程。4 The Laws of Thermodynamics4 个热力学定律Fi
38、rst law of Thermodynamics热力学第一定律The first law of thermodynamics is simply a statement of the conservation of energy. The sum of all the energy leaving a process must equal the sum of all the energy entering, in the steady state. The laws of conservation of mass and energy are followed implicitly by
39、engineers designing and operating processes of all kinds. Unfortunately, taken by itself, the first law has led to much confusion when attempting to evaluate process efficiency. People talk of energy conservation being an important effort, but in fact, no effort is required to conserve energyit is n
40、aturally conserved.热力学第一定律是一个简单的声明，能量守恒。所有能留下一个过程之和必须等于所有的能量进入和，在稳定状态。的质量和能量守恒定律是隐式的工程师设计和各种操作过程。不幸的是，所采取的本身，第一定律有 LED 很大的混乱，试图评估过程的效率。人们谈论节能是一个重要的努力，但事实上，没有努力是需要节约能源这自然是保守的。The conclusions which can be drawn from the first law are limited because it does not distinguish among the various energy for
41、ms. Shaft work introduced by a reflux pump will leave a column as heat to the condenser just as readily as will heat introduced at the reboiler. Some engineers have fallen into the trap of lumping all forms of energy together in attempting to determine process efficiency. This is obvious not justifi
42、edthe various energy forms have different costs.这可以从第一定律得出的结论是有限的，它不区分不同的能量形式之间。轴通过回流泵介绍会留下一个柱热凝汽器一样容易因为将热量在再沸器的介绍。一些工程师落入陷阱，将所有形式的能量，在试图确定过程的效率。这是明显不合理的各种能源形式有不同的成本。Second law of Thermodynamics 热力学第二定律Entropy plays a critical role in thermodynamic analysis, because it is the missing factor that we
43、were seeking to allow us to predict the direction of change in atomic or molecular systems. The essential result constitutes the second law of thermodynamics, which can be stated in several ways, not all of them obviously equivalent, but in fact all of them providing the same message.熵是热力学分析的一个关键的作用
44、，因为它是缺失的因素，我们试图让我们预测在原子或分子系统改变方向。重要的结果是热力学第二定律，它可以有几种表达方式，不是所有的人显然是等价的，但事实上他们都提供相同的信息。Here are some of them:1. Heat does not spontaneously flow from a cold body to a hot body.2. Spontaneous processes are not thermodynamically reversible.3. The complete conversion of heat into work is impossible with
45、out leaving some effect elsewhere.4. It is impossible to convert heat into work by means of a constant temperature cycle5. All natural processes are accompanied by a net gain in entropy of the system and its surroundings.This last statement is most useful to us. Let us write这里有一些人：1。热不自发地从冰冷的身体流到热的物
46、体。2。自发过程的热力学不可逆的。3。没有留下一些影响其他地方的热转化为功的完整的转换是不可能的。4。这是不可能的热能转换成工作在恒定的温度 cycle5 手段。所有的自然过程都伴随着系统的熵及其周围的净增益。最后这句话对我们最有用的。让我们写的。Lesson 11 Heat Transfer1 Basics of Heat Transfer1 基本传热In the simplest of terms, the discipline of heat transfer is concerned with only two things: temperature, and the flow of
47、heat. Temperature represents the amount of thermal energy available, whereas heat flow represents the movement of thermal energy from place to place. 在最简单的术语，传热学科关注的只有两件事：温度，和热流量。温度是热能源的数量，而热流代表的热能从一个地方移动到的地方。On a microscopic scale, thermal energy is related to the kinetic energy of molecules. The g
48、reater a materials temperature, the greater the thermal agitation of its constituent molecules (manifested both in linear motion and vibrational modes). It is natural for regions containing greater molecular kinetic energy to pass this energy to regions with less kinetic energy. 在微观尺度，热能是分子的动能相关。更大的
49、物质的温度，其组成分子的热运动更大的（表现在直线运动模式）和振动。含有大分子的动能来传递能量到较小的动能的地区是自然的。Several material properties serve to modulate the heat transferred between two regions at differing temperatures. Examples include thermal conductivities, specific heats, material densities, fluid velocities, fluid viscosities, surface emissivities, and more. Taken together, these properties serve to make the solution of many heat transfer problems an involved process.几种材料的性能起到调节转移之间的两个区域在不同温度下的热。例子包括的热传导率，比热，密度，流体速度，流体粘度，表面的发射率，和更多。总之，这些特性使许多传热问题，一个复杂的过程，解决方案。
