1、Food(p7)Vegetables are a second type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food.蔬菜作为第二类植物类型，是常吃的食物。These include root vegetables (such as potatoes and carrots),leaf vegetables (such as spinach and lettuce),stem vegetables(such as bamboo shoots and asparagus),and inflorescence vegetables(such as
2、globe artichokes and broccoli).包括根菜类（例如马铃薯和胡萝卜） ，叶菜类（例如菠菜和生菜） ，茎秆蔬菜（例如竹子的嫩枝和芦笋） ，和花序蔬菜（例如朝鲜蓟和花木耶菜）Many herbs and spices are highly-flavorful vegetables.许多草本植物和香料都是味很浓的蔬菜。Food sources from Animals-Animals can be used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce.来源于动物的食物：动物能被直接或者
3、间接的通过他们生产出产品。Meat is an example of a direct product taken from an animal,which comes from either muscle systems or from organs.肉类食材是直接从动物提取的一个例子，肉来源于动物的肌肉系统或者器官。Food products produced by animals include milk produced by mammals,which in many cultures is drunk or processed into dairy products such as
4、 cheese or butter 由动物生产的食品包括哺乳动物的奶，在许多国家这些奶被直接饮用或者加工成奶制品，例如奶酪、黄油。In addition birds and other animals lay eggs ,which are often eaten , and bees produce honey , a popular sweetener in many cultures.此外鸟和其他动物下的蛋也可以食用，还有蜜蜂产的蜂蜜是很多国家热衷的甜味佐料。Some cultures consume blood , some in the form of blood sausage ,
5、 as a thickener for sauces , a cured salted form for times of food scarcity , and others use blood in stews such as civet.一些国家会吃血，有香肠的形式，食物短缺时代会有作为增稠剂的固化盐渍酱，其他人们还会用血炖菜，例如灵猫。Water as Nutrients(p17)About 60%, by weight, of a persons body is water. 一个人身体的重量约 60%,是水 A normal person experiences symptoms
6、of dehydration when 5 10% of the body weight is lost as water and not soon replaced. Long before this occurs, thirst, weakness, and mental confusion are experienced. 一个正常人在失去体重的 5 10%水之后,并且不能很快得到补充，就经历脱水的症状，在这之前，会有口渴，乏力，和精神混乱的经历。If the state of dehydration progresses further, the skin and lips lose
7、elasticity, the cheeks become pale and the eyeballs sunken, the volume of urine decreases, and ultimately respiration ceases. 如果脱水状态的进一步推进，皮肤和嘴唇失去弹性，脸颊变得苍白，眼球凹陷，尿量减少，最终呼吸停止。Under certain conditions, a person may survive without food for about 5 weeks but can seldom live without water for more than a
8、 few days. 在一定的条件下，一个人可能生存约 5 周在没有食物情况下，但没有水很少能生存超过几天 。The need for water exists at the molecular level, the cellular level, and at the metabolic and functional levels. Water is the major solvent for the organic and inorganic chemicals involved in the biochemical reactions that are essential to life
9、. 水在分子水平上,细胞水平上,在代谢和功能水平有存在的必要性。水是有机和无机化学品的主要溶剂参与生化反应,是生活中必不可少的。Water is the principal medium that transports nutrients via body fluids to cell walls and through membranes. Water is medium than carries nitrogenous waste products from the cells for ultimate elimination. 水是主要的介质输送营养物质通过体液的细胞壁和细胞膜。水是运输
10、含氮废物从细胞最终消除的介质。The evaporation of water from the skin is one important mechanism for control and maintaining normal body temperature, essential for the controlled rate of metabolic reactions and physical comfort of the individual. 皮肤的水分蒸发是控制和维持正常体温的重要机构，是个人的代谢反应和身体的舒适控制率的关键。The quantitative requirem
11、ent for water is directly related to the sum of water losses form the body. These include losses from excretion and elimination of body waster, perspiration, and respiration. Any factors that increase the rates of these processes, such as exercise, excitation, elevated temperature, or low relative h
12、umidity, also increase the need for water replenishment. 对水的定量需求是与身体失去水的总量直接相关的。这些包括排泄身体废物，排汗损失，和呼吸。什么因素增加这些过程的速率，如运动，刺激，温度升高，或相对湿度较低，也增加了对水补给的需要。An adult may consume 400 liters of water a year. About an equal amount is obtained form food. Given sufficient water, or water in excess, the body closely
13、 regulates its water content. 一个成年人可能每年消耗 400 公升的水。约同等数量获得食物。充足的水,或过量的水,身体都会调节它的含水量。Except in unusual cases of deprivation or illness, the body seldom suffers from a deficiency of water in the sense that there may be a deficiency of other essential nutrients.除了在剥夺或疾病不寻常的情况下，人体很少患缺乏的水意识，有可能是一个缺乏其他必需的
14、营养物质。This is because, unlike many of the other nutrients, a decrease in body water causes almost immediate discomfort, driving the individual to correct the shortage.这是因为，不像其他的营养素，体内的水分减少会使我们几乎立即不适，驱动个人改正不足。Modified Starches and Starch to Sugar Conversion(p27)变性淀粉和淀粉的糖转化1、Midified Starches Starches
15、in their natural form provide water binding ,viscosity ,mouthfeel ,and texture to food.淀粉在其自然条件下，提供的是具有水绑定，有粘度，有口感、质地的食物Natural starches have some disadvantages because of the time and care needed for gelatinization. The tendency to thicken with heat may be a problem for pumping and heat exchangers.
16、 Starches degrade and thin due to acid and heat and retrograde with storage.天然淀粉其凝胶化需要时间和精力照顾具有一些劣势因。且它变浓的倾向对于泵送和热交换可能是个问题。淀粉由于存储过程中的酸化、热度和老化会变稀。Modified starches are altered starches that are designed to overcome some of the shortcomings of natural starch functionality. Pregelatinized starch is a s
17、tarch ingredient that has been fully cooked ( gelatinized ) and then dried.变性淀粉是被设计克服天然淀粉功能上的缺点的改变淀粉。预糊化淀粉是一种被充分煮熟（糊化）并干燥的淀粉原料。When cold water is added, the product become thick without the need to heat and stir for long periods. This type of starch is the basis for instant puddings. Viscosity devel
18、opment and gel formation are achieved with the addition of cold water and heat is not neede 当加入冷水后，产品不需要加热和长时间搅拌就会变浓稠。这种淀粉是速溶布丁的主要成分。粘度的发展和凝胶形成的获得使加冷水和加热都不在被需要Other starches may be modified by partial hydrolysis to give a thinner starch ( acid thinned ). This type of starch would be easier to pump a
19、nd run through heating equipment without the problems of high viscosity.其他淀粉也许被稀释水解得到一种稀释剂淀粉，这类淀粉很容易被泵送和通过加热装置而不会有粘度过高的问题。In other forms of modified starch chemical groups such as hydroxy propyl are covalently boned to the starch to slow the reassociation of the starch molecules during cooling and s
20、torage.在其它形式的变性淀粉化学基团中，例如羟丙基共价键粘合淀粉来延缓淀粉分子在冷却和储藏期间的重新组合。This modification would minimize the effects of retrogradation.这种改变会使其退化的影响减到最小。 Starch molecules are also cross-linked with other starch molecules to prevent thinning during acidic heating . 淀粉分子和淀粉分子也会在其加热酸化期间交联来阻止其稀释The cross-links make the
21、starch more resistant to the effects of hydrolysis, e.g. ,in an acidic thermally processed fruit sauce. 淀粉的交联也会使淀粉在一个热的，酸的加工果汁中对水解作用的影响更加抵抗。2. Conversion of Starch to Sugars 淀粉转化为糖 Corn syrups are a family of food ingredients derived from corn starch.玉米糖浆是一种来自玉米淀粉的家庭作料。The starch is degraded by acid
22、 , heat , and enzymes to convert the starch polymers into shorter units with glucose being the eventual end product if the reaction were taken to completion.淀粉是由酸，加热，和酶降解将淀粉聚合物转化为更小的单位，如果反应被完成的话将会以葡萄糖为最终产品。The varied extents of hydrolysis result in a series of corn syrups that are characterized by t
23、heir dextrose equivalent (DE) .不同程度的水解导致了一系列的玉米糖浆，这些玉米糖浆是以它们的葡萄糖当量为特征的。 （判定元件）If entirely degraded to the monosaccharide glucose ( also called dextrose ) the DE is 100 while starch has a theoretical DE of nearly zero. 虽然淀粉具有接近零的理论的葡萄糖当量，但是如果它完全降解成单糖葡萄糖( 也叫做右旋糖) 时的葡萄糖当量是 100。As starches are degraded
24、to higher levels of DE, the product takes on the characteristics closer to glucose and maltose such as increased sweetness, increased hygroscopicity, and increased reactivity in the Maillard reaction .淀粉被降解至更高水平的 DE，产品呈现的特性更接近为葡萄糖和麦芽糖，如增加甜度，增加的吸湿性，并增加在美拉德反应中的反应性。 Starch hydrolyzates below 20 DE are
25、called maltodextrins and are more starch like in their properties.低于 20DE 的淀粉水解液称为麦芽糖糊精，是很多淀粉具有的特性。Another step in corn syrup processing is the treatment of high glucose corn syrups with glucose isomerase, an enzyme that converts glucose to fructose.玉米糖浆处理的另一步骤是用葡萄糖异构酶处理高葡萄糖玉米糖浆，葡萄糖异构酶是一种将葡萄糖转化为果糖的酶
26、。 The product is called high fructose corn syrup and contains both fructose and unconverted glucose.该产品被称为高果糖玉米糖浆，它包含果糖和未转化的葡萄糖Amino acids(p36)Amino acids are molecules containing an amine group,a carboxylic acid group and a side chain that varies between different amino acids.氨基酸分子包含一分子的氨基，一分子的羧基和在
27、不同氨基酸分子之间变化的一条侧链。These molecules are particularly important in bio-chemistry, where this term refers to alpha-amino acids with the general formula H2NCHR-COOH, where R is an organic substituent.这些分子在生物化学中是非常重要的，在术语中这些氨基酸的通式是H2NCHRCOOH,其中 R 代表的是有机取代基。Amino acids are critical to life, and their most i
28、mportant function is their variety of roles in metabolism.氨基酸对生命是有危害的，它最重要的功能就是在代谢过程中多样化的作用。One particularly important function is as the building blocks of proteins,which are linear chains of amino acids.其中一个重要的作用就是合成氨基酸线性链蛋白质的基石。Every protein is chemically defined by this primary structure,its uni
29、que sequence of amino acid residues, which in turn define the three-dimensional struc-ture of the protein.每个蛋白质的化学定义是由其主要结构决定的，其独特的氨基酸残基序列相应地确定了蛋白质的三维结构。Amino acids are usually classified by the properties of their side chain into four groups. The side chain can make an amino acid a weak acid or a w
30、eak base , and a hydrophile if the side chain is polar or a hydrophobe if it is nonpolar.氨基酸通常通过特性的一条侧链而被归类为四种。这条侧链能使氨基酸呈现弱酸或弱碱性。如果这条侧链是亲水性的，这个氨基酸就是极性氨基酸。如果侧链是疏水性的，氨基酸就是非极性氨基酸。Amino acids are the structural units that make up proteins. They join together to form short polymer chains called peptides
31、or longer chains called either polypeptides or proteins. 氨基酸是组成蛋白质的结构单元。他们连在一起形成短的多聚物链被称为肽，长的成为多肽或是蛋白质。These polymers are linear and unbranched , with each amino acid within the chain attached to two neighbouring amino acids.这些多聚物是无支链线性的，每个氨基酸连接到两个相邻的氨基酸链内。Twenty-two amino acids are naturally incorp
32、orated into polypeptides and are called proteinogenic or standard amino acids. 22 个氨基酸自然的链接为多肽链被称为蛋白氨基酸或是标准氨基酸。Of these twenty-two, twenty are directly encoded by the universal genetic code. The remaining two, selenocysteine and pyrrolysine, are incorporated into proteins by unique synthetic mechani
33、sms.在 22 个氨基酸中其中有 20 个是由通用的遗传密码直接编码，剩下的两个硒代半胱氨酸和吡咯赖氨酸是由独特的合成机理纳入蛋白质的。An essential amino acid or indispensable acid is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo by the organism (usually referring to humans), and therefore must be supplied in the diet.必需的氨基酸或必需氨基酸是指不能通过器官（通常指人类）合成其新物质，而必需通过日常饮食
34、来提供的一 种氨基酸Eight amino acids are generally regarded as essential for humans:phenylalanine,valine,threonine tryptophan isoleucine,methionine leucine, and lysine。通常被视为人类必需的八种氨基酸是：苯丙氨酸、缬氨酸、苏氨酸、色氨酸、异亮氨酸、甲硫氨酸、亮氨酸、赖氨酸Additionally,cystein (or sulphur-containing amino acids) , tyrosine (or aromatic amimo aci
35、ds) ,histidine and arginine are required by infants and growing children 此外,对于婴儿和生长期的孩子半胱胺（含硫氨基酸） ，酪氨酸（芳香族氨基酸）也是被需要的。Essential amino acids are so called not because they are more important to life than the others ,but because the body dose not synthesize them ,making it essential to include them in
36、ones dietin order to obtain them 必需氨基酸之所以被这样叫并不是因为它比其他物质对生命体更重要，而是因为身体不能合成，所以为了获取这些物质我们必须在日常饮食中包含它们。In addition,the amino acids arginine ,cysteine ,glycine ,glutamine,histidine,proline,serine,and tyrosine are considered conditionally essential,meaning they are not normally required in the diet,but m
37、ust be supplied exogenously to specific populations that do not synthesize it in adequate amounts.另外，精氨酸，半胱氨酸，甘氨酸，谷氨酸，组氨酸，脯氨酸，丝氨酸和酪氨酸被认为是半必需氨基酸，意思是它们在饮食中通常不需要，但是对于不能合成足够量的特殊人群必须由外来物质提供。The distinction between essential and non-essential amino acids is somewhat unclear,as some amino acids can be prod
38、uced from others.当一些氨基酸能从其他物质中产生时，必需氨基酸和非必需氨基酸在某些方面的区别是不清晰的。The sulfur-containing amino acids,methionine and homocysteine,can be converted into each other but neither can be synthesized de novo in humans.含硫氨基酸，甲硫氨酸和同型半胱氨酸，能彼此转化但是都不能在人体内合成其新物质。Likewise,cysteine can be made from homocysteine but canno
39、t be synthesized on its own.同样的，半胱氨酸能从同型半胱氨酸产生但是不能自身合成。So, for convenience, sulfur-containing amino acids are sometimes considered a single pool of nutritionally-equivalent amino acids as are the aromatic amino acid pair, phenylalanine and tyrosine. 因此，为了方便，含硫氨基酸 有时候被当做和芳香族氨基酸，苯丙氨酸，酪氨酸一样的营养等同体Likewi
40、se arginine, ornithine, and citrulline, which are interconvertible by the urea cycle, are considered a single group.同样的，通过尿素循环相互转化的精氨酸，鸟氨酸和瓜氨酸，被认为是一组。Essential fatty acids(p47)Essential fatty acids , or FFAS ,are fatter acids that cannot be constructed within an organism (general all references are
41、to humans) from other components by any known chemical pathways , and therefore must be obtained from the diet . 必需脂肪酸或者简写为 FFAS，是不能够由有机体内部的任何化学反应路径所产生的一些物质来创建（通常以人类作为基准来谈） ，并且一定是由饮食中所获得的The term refers to fatty acids involved in biological processes ,and not those which may just play a role as fuel
42、 . 学术上谈及到必需脂肪酸参与生物制剂的过程，并不仅仅扮演为身体提供能量的物质这一角色。As many of the compounds created from essential fatty acids can be taken directly in the diet,人体众多复合物中有许多是由必须脂肪酸所创造的，这些必须脂肪酸可从饮食中直接摄取，It is possible the amounts required in the diet (if any) are overestimated .it is also possible they can be underestimate
43、d as organisms can still survive in non-ideal ,malnourished conditions.当机体在非理想状态下还有营养不良的状态下仍然能够存活的时候，必需脂肪酸从饮食中可获取的量可能被高估了，也有可能被低估了。There are two families of EFAS -3(or n-3) and -6(or n-6).fats from each of these families are essential, as the body can convert one omega-3 to another omega-3,for examp
44、le ,but cannot create an omeag-3 from omega-6 or saturated fats.必需脂肪酸有两大系类列：欧米加 3 和欧米加 6，来自这两大系列中的脂肪酸是最根本的，因为身体可以将一种 -3 转化成另一种 -3，但是不能由 -6 或者饱和脂肪酸创造出 -3。Almost all the polyunsaturated fat in the human diet is from EFA . Some of the food sources of -3 and -6 fatty acids are fish and shellfish, flaxse
45、ed (linseed ), hemp oil ,soya oil ,canola (rape seed),chia seed ,pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, leafy vegetables , and walnuts.几乎所有不饱和脂肪是由人类饮食中的必需脂肪酸所获得的，一些含有欧米加 3 和欧米加 6 脂肪酸的食物来源有：鱼、水生贝类、亚麻籽、大麻油、大豆油、油菜籽、野鼠尾草籽、南瓜子、葵花籽、多叶的植物还有核桃必需脂肪酸在很多新陈代谢的过程中发挥着作用，而且有证据表明必需脂肪酸过低，或者是不同种类的必须脂肪酸不均衡，可能是很多疾病的病因，包括骨质疏松症
46、。来源于植物中的 - 3 既不包含二十碳五烯酸 EPA 也不包含二十二碳六烯酸 DHA。人体能够（以防万一，经常的食素者是需要的，除非食用了海藻及其衍生物）把ALA 亚麻酸转换为 EPA 和随后的 DHA然而这需要更剧烈的新陈代谢活动，这就是相比来源于植物更多的必须脂肪酸是从动物中吸收来的原因蔬菜中的 EFA 含量因培养条件的不同而不同。动物中的来源差异非常广泛，包括动物的饲料和动物不同部位的脂肪 EFA 的组成有显著性差异。History of vitamins(p57)The value of eating a certain food to maintain health was rec
47、ognized long before vitamins were identified. The ancient Egyptians knew that feeding liver to a patient would help cure night blindness , an illness now known to be caused by a vitamin A deficiency.吃某种食物来维持健康的价值被认为早在维生素被确定之前。古埃及人知道给病人吃肝脏将有助于治疗夜盲症,现在已经知道,一种疾病是由于维生素 a 缺乏症引起的。The advancement of ocean
48、voyages during the Renaissance resulted in prolonged periods without access to fresh fruits and vegetables, and made illnesses from vitamin deficiency common among ships crews.在文艺复兴时期海洋航行的进步导致船只上的船员长时间得不到新鲜水果和蔬菜,使得维生素缺乏症是船只上的船员常见的病症。In 1749, the Scottish surgeon James Lind discovered that citrus foo
49、ds helped prevent scurvy, a particularly deadly disease in which collagen is not properly formed, causing poor wound healing, bleeding of the gums, severe pain, and death.1749 年,苏格兰医生詹姆斯林德发现柑橘类食物有助于防止坏血病,特别致命的疾病,是由于胶原蛋白无法正确生成,导致伤口愈合不佳,牙龈出血,严重的导致疼痛,甚至死亡。In 1753, Lind published his Treatise on the Scurvy, which recommended using lemons and limes to avoid scurvy, which was adopted by the British Royal Navy. This led to the nickname Limey for sailors of that organization.1753，林德发表了他的论文坏血病，推荐使用柠檬和酸橙避免坏血病，这被英国皇家海军采用。这领导了英国水手组织。Linds discovery, however, was not widely acce
