1、FUNDAMENTALSOF FORENSICANTHROPOLOGYLINDA L.KLEPINGERDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbana,IllinoisA JOHN WILEY&SONS,INC.,PUBLICATIONFUNDAMENTALSOF FORENSICANTHROPOLOGYFoundations of Human BiologySeries EditorsMatt CartmillKaye BrownDepartment of Biological Anthro
2、pology and AnatomyDuke University Medical CenterDurham,North CarolinaThe Growth of Humanity,by Barry BoginFundamentals of Forensic Anthropology,by Linda L.KlepingerFUNDAMENTALSOF FORENSICANTHROPOLOGYLINDA L.KLEPINGERDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbana,IllinoisA
3、 JOHN WILEY&SONS,INC.,PUBLICATIONCopyright#2006 by John Wiley&Sons,Inc.All rights reserved.Published by John Wiley&Sons,Inc.,Hoboken,New JerseyPublished simultaneously in Canada.Nopartof thispublicationmay bereproduced,storedin a retrieval system,or transmitted in anyformorby any means,electronic,me
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8、r Care Department within the United States at(800)762-2974,outside the United States at(317)572-3993 or fax(317)572-4002.Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats.Some content that appears in print maynot be available in electronic formats.For more information about Wiley pro
9、ducts,visit our web site.Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available:Klepinger,Linda L.Fundamentals of Forensic AnthropologyISBN 13:978-0471-21006-1ISBN 10:0-471-21006-4Printed in the United States of America1 0987654321CONTENTSPHOTO CREDITS ixACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiSERIES INTRODUCTIO
10、N xiiiPART I BACKGROUND SETTING FOR FORENSICANTHROPOLOGY1 Introduction 3Overview of the Field,3Education and Training,5Overview of the Book,62 The Role of Forensic Anthropology inHistorical Context 8The Somewhat Difcult Birth of a Specialty,8The Middle Years,11Approaching Senescence?,15vPART II TOWA
11、RDS PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION3 Initial Assessments of Skeletal Remains 19Human or Not?,20Number of Individuals Represented,224 Assignment of Sex 25Criteria for Sex Attribution in the Adult Skeleton,25Pelvic Traits,26The Skull,28Visual Assessment,30Discriminant Function Analysis,31The Appendicular Bone
12、s,33Femur,33Humerus,34Other Appendicular Elements,35Miscellaneous Axial Bones,36Attribution of Sex from the Skeletons of Children,37Figuring the Error Rate,395 Age Estimation 42The Early Years,43Dental Age,44Bone Age,46Long Bone Length,46Union of Primary Ossication Centers,48Epiphyseal Fusion,49The
13、Adult Years,53Macroscopic Methods,53Face of the Pubic Symphysis,53Sternal Extremity of the Rib,55The Auricular Surface,56Cranial Suture Closure,57Dental Methods,58Microscopic Methods,60Other Age Indicators,62Concluding Remarks on Adult Age Estimation,63vi CONTENTS6 Deciphering Ancestral Background 6
14、4The Biological and the Cultural,64The Biological Context,65The Cultural Component,65Skeletal Indicators,66The Skull,66The Postcranium,757 Stature Estimation 77How Tall Are You,Really?,77Estimation of Living Stature from Skeletal Remains,78The Fully Method,79Stature Estimation From Long Bone Length,
15、80Comparison of Methods,82Reporting Stature Estimates,83Correcting Stature Estimates for Older Adults,84Secular Trend,86Stature Estimates from Fragmentary Long Bones,86Stature Estimation from Short Bone Length,87Footwear and Foot Length,878 Skeletal Markers of Activity and Life History 89Childbirth
16、Indicators,90Handedness,91Other Activity Markers,92Partial Medical History,94Medical Radiology,96PART III PRINCIPAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL ROLES INMEDICALLEGAL INVESTIGATION9 Trauma 101Blunt Force Trauma,102Cranial Fracture,102Hyoid Fracture,105Postcranial Fracture,106Child Abuse,106CONTENTS viiPenetrating
17、 and Perforating Trauma,109Gunshot Wounds,109Sharp Injuries,11410 The Postmortem Period 117Estimation of the Postmortem Interval,117Postmortem Events,122Carnivore Scavenging,123Cremation,124Has the Body Been Burned?,125Fracturing,126Bone Shrinkage,129Dismemberment,129Ritual Use of Skeletal Material,
18、13011 Professionalism,Ethics,and the Expert Witness 132The Expert Witness,133Standards and Credentials for Expert Testimony,134Some Practical Issues,136Ethics,137Science in the Courtroom:Two Unfortunate Examples,139When Good Science is not Presented,139When Good Science is Ignored,14312 Genetics and
19、 DNA 145Serology and Mendelian Genetics,146Forensic DNA Analysis,147Legal Considerations,150References 152Index 175viii CONTENTSPHOTO CREDITSThe photo gures listed below are courtesy of the following ofces andindividuals.Figure 3.1 Bruce RamseyerFigures 4.2 and 4.3 Bruce RamseyerFigures 6.4,6.5,6.6,
20、6.7 and 6.8 Bruce RamseyerFigures 8.1 and 8.2 Kris BoltFigure 9.1 Kris BoltFigure 9.4 Peoria County Coroners OfceFigure 9.6 Joe SieffermanFigure 9.7 Kris BoltFigure 10.1 John HeidingsfelderFigure 10.2 Bruce RamseyerFigure 10.3 R.Barry LewisFigure 10.4 Bruce RamseyerFigure 10.6a John MooreFigure 10.6
21、b Eldon QuickixACKNOWLEDGMENTSThegreatAmericantennischampionAltheaGibson(19272003)remarkedthat“No matter what accomplishments you make,somebody helps you.”Somebodies,actually.First and foremost is my colleague Eugene Giles who has,at numerousand various times,acted as sounding board,source man,and d
22、iplomaticcriticall with his usual aplomb and attention to detail.Matt Cartmill andKaye Brown,series editors,were a source of advice and encouragement.Steve Hollands experience in graphics production and publishing wasvery helpful in getting gures modied and into the proper format.Several members of
23、the medicallegal community and law enforcementprofessionals have served as examples of the highest integrity and workethics in death investigation and tempered my too frequent tendency tocynicism.They are proof that we can and do make a difference.Youknow who you are.Many thanks.xiSERIES INTRODUCTIO
24、NThe core focus of physical anthropology as a discipline is the biology ofhuman beings in a cultural context.The subeld of forensic anthropologyadapts this focus to the special job of identifying unknown remains andseeking and interpreting any evidence relating to the death that theremains may hold.
25、We believe that Linda Klepingers book will becomethe classic text in this subeld.Fundamentals of Forensic Anthropologyembodies a genuine scientic passion for the subject matter,communicatednot only through the authors unique critical and evaluative approach tothe tools and techniques used in forensi
26、c investigations but also throughher craft and artistry as a writer.Forensic anthropologists need to know a great deal about humanosteology,skeletal biology,dental anthropology,taphonomy,archeology,genomics,and scientic inquiry in general.Fortunately for us,Klepingerknows all this and more.Best of a
27、ll,she has the rare gift of being able totake others along with her for an eye-popping ride without demandingthat they be similarly knowledgeable.In a prose style both engaging andstraightforward,she unveils the history,limitations,accuracies,impreci-sions,and future of forensic anthropology.Her boo
28、k will lead its readersto ask all manner of related questions regarding the science behind forensictechniques,becauseitwillteachthemnothowtodoforensicsciencebuthowto think about doing it.This,we believe,is the essence of a classic text.Inthisbook,professionalforensicanthropologistswillndguidestohelp
29、theminestimatingfromunknownremainsanindividualsprobableage,sex,race and stature.Novices will learn to understandand questionthexiiiscience behind such estimates.And everybody who reads this book willdiscover how much they care about this eld,and how important it isthat it be done with both authority
30、 and honesty.This reects the eldssocial signicance as well as its intrinsic scientic interest;but most of all,itreectsKlepingersconsummateskillintellingthestoryofherdiscipline.Forensics should be an objective scientic inquiry,not a body of opinionin service to a particular employer.Throughout her ca
31、reer,Linda Klepingerhas pursued this ideal with wit,charm,and a tenacious and courageousdevotion to the scientic method.Her impatience with less conscientiouspractitioners is expressed in her comment that the false certainty theyprofess to offer is perhaps“.best left to those who wear a pointy hatwi
32、th stars on it.”After reading Fundamentals of Forensic Anthropology,you will understand why the author quotes Voltaires aphorism:“Doubt isnot a pleasant condition,but certainty is an absurd one.”In editing Foundations of Human Biology,we seek to offer students theworks of physical anthropologys lead
33、ing practitioners and its best authors.We are grateful to Linda Klepinger for contributing a work that capturesthe enthusiasm of crime-scene investigations and channels that enthusiasmintoacriticalconcernforthescienticbasisoftheinvestigatorsknowledge.Her integration of empirical inquiry,social insig
34、ht,scientic integrity,and narrative skill exemplies and carries forward the best traditions ofanthropological science.Kaye BrownMatt CartmillDurham,North CarolinaMarch 27,2006xiv SERIES INTRODUCTIONPART IBACKGROUND SETTING FORFORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY1INTRODUCTIONThere does not exist a category of scien
35、ce to which one can give the nameapplied science.There are science and the applications of science,boundtogether as the fruit of the tree which bears it.Louis PasteurOVERVIEW OF THE FIELDPasteursobservationonscienceappearsparticularlyappropriatetoforensicanthropology.The American Board of Forensic A
36、nthropology offers thefollowing denition:Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropol-ogy to the legal process.The identication of skeletal,badly decomposed,orotherwise unidentied human remains is important for both legal and huma-nitarianreasons.Forensicanthropologi
37、stsapplystandardscientictechniquesdevelopedinphysicalanthropologytoidentifyhumanremains,andtoassistinthe detection of crime.Forensic anthropologists frequently work in conjunc-tion with forensic pathologists,odontologists,and homicide investigators toidentify a decedent,discover evidence of foul pla
38、y,and/or the postmorteminterval.In addition to assisting in locating and recovering suspiciousremains,forensic anthropologists work to suggest the age,sex,ancestry,stature,and unique features of a decedent from the skeleton.Fundamentals of Forensic Anthropology,by Linda L.KlepingerCopyright#2006 Joh
39、n Wiley&Sons,Inc.3The roots of forensic anthropology are rmly planted in the twentieth-century academic research of physical(i.e.biological)anthropology,especially bioarchaeology.The quest for extracting the maximum infor-mationfrom skeletal remains of pastpeoples pushed the envelope ofosteol-ogy be
40、yond the parameters of study routinely addressed by physicians andanatomists.The knowledge,skills and experience that physical anthropolo-gists focused on to derive biological,and even cultural,information fromhumanskeletonsinanarchaeologicalcontexthasprovendirectlyapplicabletomedicallegalcontexts.T
41、hisisnottostatethattheresearchtoapplicationow has been essentially one-way,for that is,indeed,not the case.Thegrowth of research and practice in the forensic realm has created a back-ow of information to bioarchaeological and paleontological endeavors.Readingthebonesforcluestopersonalidenticationsum
42、medupmostofthe initial work by anthropologists,who were called upon pretty much on asporadic,adhocbasis.Increasinglytheyarecalledupontohelpinterpretskel-etalevidencewithaneyetocauseandmannerofdeath.“Simplyput,thecauseofdeathisanyinjuryordiseasethatproducesaphysiologicalderangementinthe body that res
43、ults in the individual dying”(DiMaio and DiMaio,1993,p.3).Therefore,causes of death can be as diverse as gunshot wound,mela-noma,ortoxicshock.Whiledeterminationsofcausesofdeathareultimatelythe call of pathologists,medical examiners,and coroners,when remains areskeletal,theopinionoftheforensicanthrop
44、ologistcounts.However,anthro-pologistslackingsofttissueevidencemustbeespeciallycautiousintheirpro-nouncements.For instance,there is no absolute association between linearskull fractures and degree of brain injury,and the cause of death may ormay not have any direct connection with a cranial fracture
45、.The manner ofdeath is the circumstance that gave rise to the cause of death.In contrast tothe myriad possible causes of death,the manner of death has but ve cat-egories:natural causes,accident,homicide,suicide,and undetermined.Forexample,a gunshot wound to the head as a cause of death could result
46、fromaccidental,homicidal,suicidal,orundeterminedcircumstances.Thecircum-stancesofdeatharepartofthemedicallegalinvestigationthatisoftenamen-able to anthropological probingfrom assigning manner of death toevaluating the believability of a suspects account of events.Themechanismofdeathisthephysiologica
47、lorchemicalprocess,initiatedby the cause of death,that leads to the failure of vital organs or organsystems.Itisadescriptionofhowthatbullettotheheadorchesteventuatedin death.This is not an area of primary concern to the anthropologist andshould usually be left to medical personnel.What is of concern
48、 to the anthropologist is maintaining the chain of evi-denceorchainofcustody.Theanthropologistmustvouchforthesecurityofany remains or other evidence left in his or her custody.The anthropologist4 INTRODUCTIONmust guarantee that the evidence was not tampered with in any undocu-mented way.Often,but no
49、t always,there is a chain of custody formsignedanddatedinserialfashionbyeachcustodian.Inanyevent,anthropol-ogists should record dates,times,and circumstances of the arrival anddeparture of evidence and where it was housed in the interim.Mass disasters and recovery from mass graves present special ch
50、allengesand obstacles that differ from more typical death investigations in thatagencies and command structures,foreign settings,and bureaucracies mustbe dealt with.Each such instance has its own idiosyncrasies.Finally,forensicanthropologyisverymuchanalogoustoclinicalpractice,especiallyinregardtodec
