1、Chapter 2 Answers to Textbook Problems1. We saw that not only is GDP important in explaining how much two countries trade, but also, distance is crucial. Given its remoteness, Australia faces relatively high costs of transporting imports and exports, thereby reducing the attractiveness of trade. Sin
2、ce Canada has a border with a large economy (the U.S.) and Australia is not near any other major economy, it makes sense that Canada would be more open and Australia more self-reliant.我们看到,不仅是国内生产总值的重要解释多少两国贸易,但同时,距离是至关重要的。鉴于地处偏远,澳大利亚面临着相对较高的运输成本高,从而减少进口和出口贸易的吸引力。因为加拿大有一个边界有一个很大的经济体(美国)，澳大利亚是不靠近任何其他
3、主要经济体。这说明，加拿大将更加开放，澳大利亚更加自力更生。2. Mexico is quite close to the U.S., but it is far from the European Union (EU). So it makes sense that it trades largely with the U.S. Brazil is far from both, so its trade is split between the two. Mexico trades more than Brazil in part because it is so close to a ma
4、jor economy (the U.S.) and in part because it is a member of a free trade agreement with a large economy (NAFTA). Brazil is farther away from any large economy and is in a free trade agreement with relatively small countries.墨西哥很接近美国的,但它远欧盟 (EU)。这说明，它的交易在很大程度上与美国。巴西远离墨西哥和美国,所以其贸易是分为两种。墨西哥交易超过巴西部分是因为
5、它是如此接近一个主要经济体(美国),部分原因是它是一个成员的一个自由贸易协议(NAFTA)的大型经济体。巴西是远离任何大型经济体,也是在一个自由贸易协定与相对较小的国家。3. No, if every countrys GDP were to double, world trade would not quadruple. One way to see this using the example from Table 2-2 would simply be to quadruple all the trade flows in 2-2 and also double the GDP in 2
6、-1. We would see that the first line of Table 2-2 would be, 6.4, 1.6, 1.6. If that were true, Country A would have exported $8 trillion which is equal to its entire GDP. Likewise, it would have imported $8 trillion, meaning it had zero spending on its own goods (highly unlikely). If instead we fille
7、d in Table 2-2 as before, by multiplying the appropriate shares of the world economy times a countrys GDP, we would see the first line of Table 2-2 reads, 3.2, 0.8, 0.8. In this case, 60% of Country As GDP is exported, the same as before. The logic is that while the world GDP has doubled, increasing
8、 the likelihood of international trade, the local economy has doubled, increasing the likelihood of domestic trade. The gravity equation still holds. If you fill in the entire table, you will see that where before the equation was 0.1 GDPi GDPj, it now is 0.05 GDPi GDPj. The coefficient on each GDP
9、is still one, but the overall constant has changed.不,如果每一个国家的国内生产总值翻了一倍 ,世界贸易将不会翻 4 倍。一使用的示例见表 2 - 2 就是所有的贸易流动在 2 - 2 和 2 - 1 的 GDP 两倍而不是 4 倍。我们将看到表 2 - 2,第一行将是- 6.4,1.6,1.6。如果这是真的,国家 A 将出口 8 万亿美元,等于整个国内生产总值。同样,它会进口 8 万亿美元, 这意味着它已经零支出在自己的商品(不太可能) 。如果我们填写表 2 - 2 和之前一样,乘以相应的股票的世界经济时代一个国家的 GDP,我们会看到第一行
10、表 2 - 2 读取-,3.2,0.8,0.8。在这种情况下,60% 的国家 A 的GDP 是出口,和以前一样的。其逻辑是,当世界国内生产总值翻了一番,增加国际贸易的可能性,当地经济已经翻了一番,加剧了国内贸易的可能性。引力方程仍然持有。如果你填写整个表, 你会发现之前的方程是 0.1 GDPi GDPj,现在是 0.05 GDPi GDPj。在每个 GDP 系数仍然是一个,但整体恒已经改变了。4. As the share of world GDP which belongs to East Asian economies grows, then in every trade relatio
11、nship which involves an East Asian economy, the size of the East Asian economy has grown. This makes the trade relationships with East Asian countries larger over time. The logic is similar for why the countries trade more with one another. Previously, they were quite small economies, meaning that t
12、heir markets were too small to import a substantial amount. As they became more Chapter 2 World Trade: An Overview 1wealthy and the consumption demands of their populace rose, they were each able to import more. Thus, while they previously had focused their exports to other rich nations, over time,
13、they became part of the rich nation club and thus were targets for one anothers exports. Again, using the gravity model, when South Korea and Taiwan were both small, the product of their GDPs was quite small, meaning despite their proximity, there was little trade between them. Now that they have bo
14、th grown considerably, their GDPs predict a considerable amount of trade.5. As the chapter discusses, a century ago, much of world trade was in commodities that in many ways were climate or geography determined. Thus, the UK imported goods that it could not make itself. This meant importing things l
15、ike cotton or rubber from countries in the Western Hemisphere or Asia. As the UKs climate and natural resource endowments were fairly similar to those in the rest of Europe, it had less of a need to import from other European countries. In the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution, where manufactur
16、ing trade accelerated and has continued to expand with improvements in transportation and communications, it is not surprising that the UK would turn more to the nearby and large economies in Europe for much of its trade. This is a direct prediction of the gravity model.作为一章讨论,一个世纪以前,大部分世界贸易在商品在许多方面
17、是气候和地理位置决定。因此,英国进口商品,它不可能使本身。这意味着进口诸如棉花和橡胶在西半球的国家或亚洲。作为英国的气候和自然资源禀赋都相当类似于那些在欧洲其他国家,它有更少的需要进口来自其他欧洲国家。在工业革命的后果,制造贸易加速和继续扩大和改善交通和通信,这是不奇怪的,英国会更到附近和在欧洲大型经济体的大量贸易。这是一个直接预测的重力模型。Chapter 3 Answers to Textbook Problems1. a. The production possibility curve is a straight line that intercepts the apple axis
18、at 400(1200/3) and the banana axis at 600(1200/2).b. The opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas is 3/2. It takes three units of labor to harvest an apple but only two units of labor to harvest a banana. If one foregoes harvesting an apple, this frees up three units of labor. These 3 units of
19、 labor could then be used to harvest 1.5 bananas.苹果从香蕉的机会成本是 32。它需要三个劳动收获一个苹果，但只有两个劳动收获一个香蕉。如果一个人放弃收获的苹果，这将释放三单位的劳动。这 3 个单位的劳动可以收获 1.5 个香蕉。c. Labor mobility ensures a common wage in each sector and competition ensures the price of goods equals their cost of production. Thus, the relative price equal
20、s the relative costs, which equals the wage times the unit labor requirement for apples divided by the wage times the unit labor requirement for bananas. Since wages are equal across sectors, the price ratio equals the ratio of the unit labor requirement, which is 3 apples per 2 bananas.劳动力流动保证普通工资在
21、每个部门和竞争，从而保证商品的价格等于其生产成本。因此，相对价格等于相对成本，这相当于苹果的工资乘以单位劳动要求除以香蕉的工资乘以单位劳动要求。由于工资在部门中是平等的，价格比率等于单位劳动力的比例要求,即 3 个苹果相当于 2 个香蕉。2. a. The production possibility curve is linear, with the intercept on the apple axis equal to 160(800/5) 2 Krugman/Obstfeld International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth Edit
22、ionand the intercept on the banana axis equal to 800(800/1).生产可能性曲线是线性的，在苹果轴等于 160（800 / 5） ，香蕉轴等于截距 800（800 / 1） 。b. The world relative supply curve is constructed by determining the supply of apples relative to the supply of bananas at each relative price. The lowest relative price at which apples
23、 are harvested is 3 apples per 2 bananas. The relative supply curve is flat at this price. The maximum number of apples supplied at the price of 3/2 is 400 supplied by Home while, at this price, Foreign harvests 800 bananas and no apples, giving a maximum relative supply at this price of 1/2. This r
24、elative supply holds for any price between 3/2 and 5. At the price of 5, both countries would harvest apples. The relative supply curve is again flat at 5. Thus, the relative supply curve is step shaped, flat at the price 3/2 from the relative supply of 0 to 1/2, vertical at the relative quantity 1/
25、2 rising from 3/2 to 5, and then flat again from 1/2 to infinity.世界相对供给曲线是通过确定苹果供应相对的香蕉供应各相对价格构成。最低的相对价格，苹果收获是每 2 个香蕉 3 个苹果。相对供给曲线在这个价格是平的。苹果按 3 / 2的价格提供的最大数量是按国内 400 提供的，在这个价格，国外收获 800 个香蕉，没有苹果，在这个价格的 1 / 2 给出最大的相对供给。这种相对供给在 3 / 2 和 5 之间的任何价格。在 5 的价格，这两个国家将收获苹果。相对供给曲线在 5 是水平的。因此，相对供给曲线为阶梯状，在价格的 3/2
26、 处，从 0 到 1/2 是水平的，垂直的相对量的 1 / 2，从 3 / 2 上升到5，然后再从 1 / 2 平至无限远。3. a. The relative demand curve includes the Points (1/5, 5), (1/2, 2), (1, 1), (2, 1/2).b. The equilibrium relative price of apples is found at the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves. This is the Point (1/2, 2
27、), where the relative demand curve intersects the vertical section of the relative supply curve. Thus the equilibrium relative price is 2.苹果的平衡相对价格的相对需求和相对供给曲线的交点发现点（12，2） ，其中的相对需求曲线相交的相对供给曲线的纵断面。因此，均衡的相对价格是 2。c. Home produces only apples, Foreign produces only bananas, and each country trades some
28、of its product for the product of the other country.d. In the absence of trade, Home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, and Foreign could gain by one apple foregoing five bananas. Trade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. Home could then gain four bananas by forego
29、ing two apples while Foreign could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. Each country is better off with trade.在没有贸易的时候，国内可以用 2 个苹果换取 3 个香蕉，国外可以用 5 个香蕉换取 1 个苹果。贸易使得每个国家可以用 2 个香蕉换取 1 个苹果。因此，国内可以用 2 个苹果换取 4 个香蕉，国外可以用 2 个香蕉换取 1 个苹果。每个国家都会从贸易中获益。4. The increase in the number of workers at Home s
30、hifts out the relative supply schedule such that the corner Points are at (1, 3/2) and (1, 5), instead of (1/2, 3/2) and (1/2, 5). The intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves is now in the lower horizontal section, at the Point (2/3, 3/2). In this case, Foreign still gains fro
31、m trade but the opportunity cost of bananas in terms of apples for Home is the same whether or not there is trade, so Home neither gains nor loses from trade.Chapter 2 World Trade: An Overview 3国内工人数量的增加使得相对供应表的交点在( 1, 3/2)和( 1, 5)，而不是( 1/2, 3/2)和（( 1/2, 5).。相对需求和相对供给曲线的交点现在是在较低的水平段，在点 (2/3, 3/2)。在这
32、种情况下，外国仍然从贸易中获益，但国内从苹果衡量的香蕉的机会成本，和是否有贸易一样，所以国内在贸易中不会获益也不会损失。5. This answer is identical to that in 3. The amount of “effective labor” has not changed since the doubling of the labor force is accompanied by a halving of the productivity of labor.6. This statement is just an example of the pauper labo
33、r argument discussed in the chapter. The point is that relative wage rates do not come out of thin air; they are determined by comparative productivity and the relative demand for goods. The box in the chapter provides data which shows the strong connection between wages and productivity. Chinas low
34、 wage presumably reflects the fact that China is less productive than the United States in most industries. As the test example illustrated, a highly productive country that trades with a less productive, low-wage country will raise, not lower, its standard of living.这句话就是一个贫民劳动论在本章讨论的例子。关键的一点是，相对工资
35、率不凭空得来的；他们是通过比较生产力和商品的相对需求决定的。本章提供的数据显示框的工资和生产率之间的紧密联系。中国的低工资大概反映了一个事实，在大多数行业，中国是生产率比美国的低。作为测试的例子说明，一个高生产力国家和一个低生产力低工资国家进行贸易，将会提高而不是降低人民的生活水平。7. The problem with this argument is that it does not use all the information needed for determining comparative advantage in production: this calculation inv
36、olves the four unit labor requirements (for both the industry and service sectors, not just the two for the service sector). It is not enough to compare only services unit labor requirements. If Home labor is more efficient than Foreign labor *,lslain services. While this demonstrates that the Unite
37、d States has an absolute advantage in services, this is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for determining comparative advantage. For this determination, the industry ratios are also required. The competitive advantage of any industry depends on both the relative productivities of the in
38、dustries and the relative wages across industries.这种观点的问题在于，在生产中，它不使用所需的所有信息确定比较优势：这种计算涉及四单位劳动需求（包括工业和服务业，不只是两个服务部门） 。只比服务的单位劳动要求是不够的。如果国内服务业的劳动力比国外的更有效。虽然这表明美国服务业占绝对优势，这既不是必要的也*,lsla不是充分条件确定比较优势。对于这个决定，也需要行业比率。任何产业的竞争优势取决于产业的相对劳动生产率和跨行业的相对工资。8. While Japanese workers may earn the equivalent wages o
39、f U.S. workers, the purchasing power of their income is one-third less. This implies that although w w* (more or less), p p* (since 3p p*). Since the United States is considerably more productive in services, service prices are relatively low. This benefits and enhances U.S. purchasing power. Howeve
40、r, many of these services cannot be transported and hence, are not traded. This implies that the Japanese may not benefit from the lower U.S. services costs, and do not face an international price which is lower than their domestic price. Likewise, the price of services in United States does not inc
41、rease with the opening of trade since these services are non-traded. Consequently, U.S. purchasing power is higher than that of Japan due to its lower prices on non-traded goods.当日本工人可以取得和美国工人相等的薪金的时候，他们收入带来的购买力相比已经少了1/3,。这个现实虽然 w = w* (more or less), p p* (since 3p = p*)（看不懂是神马）.由于美国在服务方面比较多产，服务的价值
42、相对比较低。这使得美国的购买力获益和提高。当然，许多服务是不能兑换的，因此，他们也是不进行交易的。这表示日本人并不能从美国的低服务花费收益，也不4 Krugman/Obstfeld International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth Edition会面临一个低于国内价格的国际价格。就好像，在美国的服务价格并不会随着交易的开放而增长，因为这些服务是不进行交易的。结果，美国的购买力比日本高是因为他们在不交易物品的低价格上。Chapter 2 World Trade: An Overview 59. Gains from trade still ex
43、ist in the presence of non-traded goods. The gains from trade decline as the share of non-traded goods increases. In other words, the higher the portion of goods which do not enter the international marketplace, the lower the potential gains from trade. If transport costs were high enough so that no
44、 goods were traded, then, obviously, there would be no gains from trade.在不交易的物品获得的收益还是存在的。贸易的获益随着不交换物品交易的增长而下降。换句话说，货物不进入国际市场的数量越多，潜在的商业收益就越低。如果运输费用很高，没有物品交换的话，这里就没有商业收益了。10. The world relative supply curve in this case consists of a step function, with as many “steps” (horizontal portions) as there
45、 are countries with different unit labor requirement ratios. Any countries to the left of the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves export the good in which they have a comparative advantage relative to any country to the right of the intersection. If the intersection occurs
46、 in a horizontal portion then the country with that price ratio produces both goods.Chapter 4 Answers to Textbook Problems1. The definition of cattle growing as land intensive depends on the ratio of land to labor used in production, not on the ratio of land or labor to output. The ratio of land to
47、labor in cattle exceeds the ratio in wheat in the United States, implying cattle is land intensive in the United States. Cattle is land intensive in other countries as well if the ratio of land to labor in cattle production exceeds the ratio in wheat production in that country. Comparisons between a
48、nother country and the United States is less relevant for this purpose. 6 Krugman/Obstfeld International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth Edition2. a. The box diagram has 600 as the length of two sides (representing labor) and 60 as the length of the other two sides (representing land). There wi
49、ll be a ray from each of the two corners representing the origins. To find the slopes of these rays we use the information from the question concerning the ratios of the production coefficients. The question states that aLC/aTC 20 and aLF/aTF 5.Since aLC/aTC (LC/QC)/(TC/QC) LC/TC we have LC 20TC. Using the same reasoning, aLF/aTF (LF/QF)/(TF/QF) LF/TF and since this ratio equals 5, we have LF 5TF. We can solve this algebraically since L LC LF 600 and T TC TF 60.The solution is LC 400, TC 20, LF 200 and TF 40.
